CF AR CWC 6/15/98 Work injuries and illnesses occurring to women 1992-96 Work Injuries and Illnesses Occurring to Women BY GUY A. TOSCANO JANICE A. WINDAU ANDREW KNESTAUT Women's job related injuries and fatalities are substantially below those of men, largely because of their lower proportions in high-risk industries and occupations. As more and more women take high-risk jobs, however, the possibility exists that their risk of injury and death will increase. Studies from occupational safety and health professionals show that women incur far fewer work injuries than men. In fact, Bureau of Labor Statistics data for the period 1992-96 reveal that although they comprise slightly under half of the total workforce, women incurred less than one-tenth of job-related fatal injuries and one-third of the nonfatal injuries and illnesses that required time off to recuperate.(1) One explanation for this large discrepancy is that more women than men are employed in relatively less dangerous jobs, such as teaching and service occupations, where work is performed indoors in controlled environments. There were virtually no women employed in the most dangerous occupations in the construction trades, such as roofing and structural metal work, or in other high-risk jobs where work is performed outdoors.(2) Women today incur far fewer job-related fatalities and serious injuries than men in part because of their low proportionate share of employment in high risk industries. But if more women enter high-risk occupations, like those in construction and mining, their risk of injury or death may increase. This article profiles job-related fatalities, injuries, and illnesses that occurred to women from 1992-96 and compares them with those occurring to men during the same time period. Fatal injuries Slightly over 2,500 women were fatally injured at work during 1992-96-about 8 percent of the 32,000 job-related fatalities that occurred during that period. Homicides and highway incidents accounted for nearly two-thirds of the work injury deaths among women. (See table 1.) Homicides. About 40 percent of the women and 14 percent of the men who were fatally injured were victims of homicide. Yet, men incurred over four times as many job-related homicides as women. Regardless of gender, most homicide victims were shot; but women were strangled or beaten to death relatively more often than men. Two-thirds of homicides occurred in the retail and service industries. Nearly one-half of the women fatally assaulted worked in retail establishments, such as grocery stores, eating and drinking places, and gasoline service stations. (See table 2.) Yet, men incurred a disproportionate share of the murders in these establishments. They accounted for about 50 percent of the workforce but comprised 80 percent of the homicide victims. This large discrepancy may be because one-half of these fatal assaults occurred at night, between 8 p.m. and 4 a.m., when men primarily staff these businesses.(3) About one-third of the women who were murdered on the job worked in sales occupations either as a cashier, sales supervisor, proprietor, or clerk. All female managers of food serving and lodging establishments who were fatally injured were homicide victims. Robbery was the primary motive for fatal assaults in retail industries. The availability of ready cash and the accessibility of the establishments made them attractive targets round-the-clock.(4) Although most of the female victims of job-related homicides did not know their attackers, more than one-fourth were fatally assaulted by people they did know-co-workers, clients, spouses, or friends. (See table 3.) About 16 percent were victims of domestic disputes that spilled over into the workplace. Less than 1 percent of homicides to male victims resulted from domestic disputes. Highway vehicle crashes. Job-related highway incidents claimed the lives of 650 women during 1992-96. Health care and social service workers accounted for almost one-fifth of these deaths-about the same number as motor vehicle operators, such as truck and bus drivers and driver-sales workers. About one-fifth of the women who died in highway vehicle crashes worked for a government agency. Highway vehicle crashes accounted for a slightly higher proportion of job-related deaths among women than among men. Other incidents resulting in fatalities. About 15 percent of the fatal injuries to women resulted from other transportation-related incidents, such as aircraft crashes or being struck by a vehicle. Women killed in aircraft crashes included airline attendants and managers and professionals traveling to meetings or conferences. Women working on highway construction projects, female crossing guards, and women crossing streets accounted for most of the women who died after being struck by a vehicle. Highway and other vehicle-related incidents were the leading fatal event for female police officers and guards, while homicide was the leading event for men in these occupations. Falls accounted for 5 percent of the job-related fatalities among women, compared with 11 percent for men. Over half the fatal falls occurring to women took place on stairs, steps, or other walking surfaces; whereas, fatal falls to male workers were primarily from roofs, ladders, scaffolds, vehicles, or building girders. Another 5 percent of female workers' fatalities resulted from contact with objects and equipment, such as being crushed in running machinery or struck by a falling object. Exposure to harmful substances or environments, such as electrocutions, drownings, and the inhalation of chemicals, accounted for 4 percent of the fatalities among women workers. Two percent of the women killed at work were victims of fire and explosions. Comparing occupational fatality rates. Besides incurring fewer fatal work injuries than men, women have much lower fatality rates than male workers.(5) Female workers had a work fatality rate of less than 1 fatal injury per 100,000 employed women in 1996, compared with 8 fatal work injuries per 100,000 employed men for the same period of time. Table 4 compares fatality rates for women and men in the 20 occupations with the largest number of female fatalities. The highest rates for female workers were generally 2 or 3 times less than the rates for men in the same occupations. Table 5 shows the leading causes of fatalities for both men and women in these occupations. Nonfatal injuries and illnesses resulting in days away from work Female wage and salary workers in the private sector incurred slightly over 650,000 injuries and illnesses in 1995, or one-third of the more than 2 million cases resulting in days away from work to recuperate. Sprains and strains accounted for a little over two-fifths of the injury and illness cases for both men and women. (See table 6.) Although male workers incurred greater numbers of most types of injuries and illnesses, women accounted for more cases of carpal tunnel syndrome, tendonitis, respiratory system diseases, infectious and parasitic diseases, and disorders resulting from anxiety or stress. Their predominance in certain health care occupations may explain part of their increased risk of suffering infectious and parasitic diseases. Almost half of the female workers' injuries and illnesses resulted from bodily reaction or exertion, such as overexertion in lifting or pushing and repetitive grasping of handtools. (See table 7.) Falls, primarily on the same level, and contact with objects (such as being struck by falling objects, striking against objects, or getting caught in running equipment) each accounted for about one-fifth of the job-related injuries among women. Compared with men, women incurred more job-related injuries from repetitive motion, assaults, inhalation of harmful substances, and aircraft crashes. Women accounted for about two-thirds of the nearly 23,000 injuries reported from workplace assaults. The manner in which women were assaulted varied. Reported cases include both physical and verbal incidents resulting in days away from work to recuperate. (See table 8.) About 70 percent of all nonfatal assaults that resulted in days away from work occurred in service industries such as nursing homes, social services, and hospitals. These injuries resulted primarily from assaults by patients. Another 20 percent of the cases occurred in retail industries, primarily eating and drinking establishments and grocery stores-the most vulnerable workers being female stock handlers who incurred about one-fourth of these assaults. Occupations with large numbers of nonfatal injuries and illnesses. A comparison of risk between men and women by occupation shows that women had a higher chance of injury in 15 of the 20 occupations for which women reported the largest number of nonfatal injuries. (See table 9.) For ex-ample, women working as registered nurses had a 1 in 49 chance of injury compared to male registered nurses, who had a 1 in 75 chance of injury. Women also had a higher chance of incurring a nonfatal injury or illness in 12 of the top 20 occupations for which men had the highest number of job-related injuries or illnesses. Conclusion Women have far fewer fatal work injuries than men; and, although they also have fewer nonfatal injuries, they do have a higher chance of certain job-related injuries, such as those resulting from repetitive motion or assaults. Women in certain occupations also had a higher risk of nonfatal injury or illness than their male counterparts. More time and data however, are needed to ascertain if serious injuries incurred by women will increase relative to their increase in employment in high-risk occupations. Further studies are needed to evaluate comparative severity (median days away from work) of job-related injuries and illnesses between women and men. This information could be valuable for re-engineering work environments to reduce the number and severity of injuries in the future. -ENDNOTES- 1 Data on fatal work injuries are from the Bureau of Labor Statistics' Census of Fatal Occupational Injuries (CFOI), 1992-96. This program, which has collected occupational fatality data nationwide since 1992, uses diverse data sources to identify, verify, and profile fatal work injuries. Information about each workplace fatality (occupation and other worker characteristics, equipment being used, and circumstances of the event) is obtained by cross-referencing source documents, such as death certificates, workers' compensation records, and reports to Federal and State agencies. This method assures counts are as complete and accurate as possible. Data on nonfatal injuries and illnesses are from the Survey of Occupational Injuries and Illnesses (SOII), 1995. This program collects information from a random sample of about 200,000 establishments representing most private industry wage and salary workers. Worker characteristics are collected only for those workers sustaining injuries and illnesses that require days away from work to recuperate. Because the scope and methodology of CFOI and SOII are slightly different, comparison of fatal and nonfatal data are problematic. For additional information, access the Bureau's Internet site at http://stats.bls.gov/oshhome.htm or e-mail the Census of Fatal Occupational Injuries staff at cfoistaff@bls.gov Employment data are from the BLS Current Population Survey (CPS). See Employment and Earnings, Volume 44, No. 1, January 1997 for an explanation of the scope and data collection methods of the CPS. 2 See "Outdoor Occupations Exhibit High Rates of Fatal Injuries," Bureau of Labor Statistics, Summary 95-6, March 1995. 3 "Workers on Flexible and Shift Schedules in 1997," USDL 98-119, Bureau of Labor Statistics, March 26, 1998. 4 See Rosemary J. Erickson, Armed Robbers and their Crimes, Athena Research Corporation, Seattle, WA, 1996. 5 See the Technical note in "State and Industry Fatal Occupational Injuries, 1992-96" in this issue for an explanation of how fatality rates are calculated. Table 1. Job-related fatalities by event or exposure, 1992-96 Women Men Event or exposure Number Percent Number Percent Total........................... 2,506 100 29,061 100 Homicides........................... 973 39 4,173 14 Highway crashes..................... 650 26 5,764 20 Struck by vehicle................... 156 6 1,683 6 Falls............................... 137 5 3,081 11 Aircraft crashes.................... 128 5 1,536 5 Contact with objects................ 125 5 4,862 17 Harmful exposures................... 102 4 2,868 10 Other............................... 235 9 5,094 18 SOURCE: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Census of Fatal Occupational Injuries, 1992-96 Table 2. Job-related homicides by industry, 1992-96 Women Men Industry Number Percent Number Percent Total........................... 973 100 4,173 100 Retail trade........................ 471 48 1,938 46 Grocery stores.................... 136 14 695 17 Eating places..................... 110 11 268 6 Drinking places................... 36 4 148 4 Gasoline service stations......... 28 3 166 4 Services............................ 208 21 622 15 Hotels and motels................. 22 2 50 1 Beauty shops...................... 20 2 10 (1) Health services................... 37 4 26 1 Finance, insurance, and real estate. 72 7 124 3 Depository institutions........... 29 3 22 1 Real estate....................... 28 3 78 2 Other businesses.................... 98 10 969 23 Government.......................... 124 13 520 12 1 Less than 0.5 percent SOURCE: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Census of Fatal Occupational Injuries, 1992-96 Table 3. Job-related homicides by circumstances or alleged perpetrator, 1992-96 Women Men Circumstances or alleged perpetrator Number Percent Number Percent Total........................... 973 100 4,173 100 Robberies and other crimes.......... 709 73 3,697 89 Work associates..................... 99 10 423 10 Coworker, former coworker......... 62 6 274 7 Customer, client.................. 37 4 149 4 Relatives........................... 106 11 28 (1) Spouse, ex-spouse................. 91 9 3 (1) Other relative.................... 15 2 16 (1) Other personal acquaintances....... 59 6 25 (1) Boy(or girl)friend, ex-boy(or girl)friend...................... 50 5 7 (1) Other acquaintances............... 9 1 18 (1) 1 Less than 0.5 percent SOURCE: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Census of Fatal Occupational Injuries, 1992-96 Table 4. Fatal occupational injuries by occupation and gender for the 20 jobs with the highest number of fatalities among women, 1996 Fatalities Fatalities Employment(1) per 100,000 (in thousands) workers(2) Occupation Women Men Women Men Women Men Sales supervisors and proprietors....... 29 196 1,688 2,813 1.7 7.0 Public transportation attendants........ 26 12 77 18 33.8 66.7 Cashiers................................ 24 70 2,231 625 1.1 11.0 Nursing aides, orderlies, attendants.... 18 5 1,635 215 1.1 2.3 Managers, food serving and lodging places................................. 17 58 635 748 2.7 7.8 Truck drivers........................... 16 769 160 2,859 10.0 26.9 Registered nurses....................... 15 (3) 1,853 133 .8 (3) Farm operators and managers............. 11 365 304 1,010 3.6 36.1 Laborers, except construction........... 10 203 269 1,065 3.7 19.0 Secretaries............................. 10 (3) 3,120 44 .3 (3) Social workers.......................... 10 9 510 235 2.0 3.8 Farm workers............................ 9 159 158 682 3.2 21.0 Teachers, except post-secondary......... 9 15 3,515 1,209 .3 1.2 Construction laborers................... 8 283 31 778 25.8 36.1 Sales counter clerks.................... 8 6 134 65 5.2 9.2 Guards.................................. 7 87 200 611 3.5 14.2 Waiters and waitresses.................. 7 4 1,071 304 .7 1.3 Accountants and auditors................ 6 7 861 677 .7 1.0 Police and detectives................... 6 105 152 808 3.9 13.0 Therapists.............................. 6 3 347 127 1.7 2.4 1 The employment figures are annual average estimates of employed civilians, age 16 and older, from the Current Population Survey, 1996. 2 The rate represents the number of fatal occupational injuries per 100,000 workers and was calculated as follows: (N/W) x 100,000, where N = the number of fatally injured workers, age 16 and older, and W = the number of employed workers, age 16 and older. 3 Data do not meet BLS publication criteria. SOURCE: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Census of Fatal Occupational Injuries, 1996 Table 5. Leading fatal events by occupation and gender for the 20 jobs with the highest number of fatalities among women, 1996 Leading fatal events (percent) Occupation Women Men Sales supervisors and proprietors....... Homicides (72) Homicides (64) Public transportation attendants........ Aircraft crashes (100) Aircraft crashes (75) Cashiers................................ Homicides (92) Homicides (90) Nursing aides, orderlies, attendants.... Highway (56), homicides (22) Assaults and violent acts (60) Managers, food serving and lodging places................................. Homicides (100) Homicides (76) Truck drivers........................... Highway incidents (75) Highway incidents (65) Registered nurses....................... Highway incidents (47) (No data.) Farm operators and managers............. Transportation incidents (64) Struck by object (29); overturned vehicle (25) Laborers, except construction........... Contact with object (30); Transportation incident (30); Transportation (30) struck by object (30) Secretaries............................. Homicides (30); highway (30) (No data.) Social workers.......................... Highway incidents (60); homicides (30) Homicides (67) Farm workers............................ Assaults by animals (44) Contact with object (22); nonhighway incident (22) Teachers, except post-secondary......... Homicides (33); highway incidents (33) Aircraft crashes (40); falls (27) Construction laborers................... Transportation (75) Contact with object (30); transportation (29) Sales counter clerks.................... Homicides (88) Homicides (67) Guards.................................. Worker struck by vehicle (43) Homicides (56); Waiters and waitresses.................. Homicides (100) Assaults and violent acts (75 ) Accountants and auditors................ Highway incidents (67) Homicides (43) Police and detectives................... Highway incidents (50) Homicides (50); highway incidents (32) Therapists.............................. Highway incidents (67) (Less than 3 fatalities.) SOURCE: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Census of Fatal Occupational Injuries, 1996 Table 6. Selected nature of injury or illness, cases resulting in days away from work, private wage and salary workers, 1995 Women Men Median days Nature of injury away from or illness work Number Percent Number Percent Total........................... 667,166 100 1,355,098 100 5 Sprains and strains................. 302,435 45 566,519 42 5 Surface wounds, bruises............. 78,549 12 171,391 13 3 Open wounds......................... 38,540 6 158,793 12 3 Fractures........................... 30,704 5 92,799 7 18 Carpal tunnel syndrome.............. 22,286 3 20,149 1 30 Burns............................... 15,747 2 36,469 3 4 Tendonitis.......................... 12,819 2 9,123 1 12 Symptoms and ill-defined conditions. 10,285 2 11,286 1 3 Loss of consciousness............. 1,091 (1) 500 (1) 2 Other musculoskeletal disorders..... 9,386 1 11,026 1 (1) Skin disorders...................... 4,247 1 5,744 (1) 3 Anxiety, stress, neurotic disorders. 4,173 1 1,689 (1) 23 Respiratory system diseases......... 2,079 (1) 1,500 (1) 5 Infectious and parasitic diseases... 1,964 (1) 786 (1) 5 1 Less than 0.5 percent SOURCE: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Survey of Occupational Injuries and Illnesses, 1995 Table 7. Selected event or exposure cases resulting in days away from work, private wage and salary workers, 1995 Women Men Median days Event or exposure away from work Number Percent Number Percent Total........................... 667,166 100 1,355,098 100 5 Bodily reaction and exertion........ 320,535 48 557,081 41 7 Overexertion in lifting........... 112,873 17 220,140 16 6 Repetitive motion................. 51,091 8 30,983 2 18 Falls............................... 134,769 20 206,968 15 7 Contact with objects and equipment.. 127,453 19 430,740 32 4 Exposure to harmful substances or environments....................... 36,972 6 65,862 5 3 Due to inhalation................. 6,183 1 5,929 (1) 2 Assaults and violent acts........... 18,156 3 10,619 1 4 By persons........................ 15,440 2 7,286 (1) 5 Transportation incidents............ 16,940 3 56,016 4 8 Highway........................... 12,313 2 32,938 2 8 Aircraft.......................... 386 (1) 98 (1) 8 1 Less than 0.5 percent SOURCE: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Survey of Occupational Injuries and Illnesses, 1995 Table 8. Workplace assault cases resulting in days away from work, private wage and salary workers, 1995 Median days Type of assault Women Men away from work Total........................... 15,440 7,286 5 Hitting, kicking, and beating....... 6,255 3,238 4 Squeezing, pinching, and scratching. 1,927 264 3 Biting.............................. 720 237 2 Threats or verbal abuse............. 133 168 5 Rape................................ 66 (1) 41 Stabbing............................ 31 136 8 Shooting............................ (1) 188 46 Assaults, other(2).................. 4,782 1,797 7 Assaults, unspecified............... 1,502 1,258 9 1 Data do not meet BLS publication criteria. 2 Other assaults account for slightly over one-fourth of the total. These incidents may include being poked in the eye, being pushed, something being thrown at the victim, stress from being robbed, etc. SOURCE: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Survey of Occupational Injuries and Illnesses, 1995 Table 9. The 20 jobs with the highest number of nonfatal injuries and illnesses requiring time off work by gender, private wage and salary workers, 1995 Number of nonfatal Employment(1) injuries Chance of nonfatal and illnesses (in injury/illness Occupation thousands) Women Men Women Men Women(2) Men Women Nursing aides, orderlies, attendants.... 89,687 10,204 1,069 133 *1:12 1:13 Registered nurses....................... 26,077 1,625 1,275 122 *1:49 1:75 Cashiers................................ 24,892 5,138 891 269 *1:36 1:52 Assemblers.............................. 20,120 35,167 435 708 1:22 1:20 Maids and housemen...................... 19,396 6,538 324 85 1:17 1:13 Miscellaneous food preparation jobs..... 16,813 17,179 98 149 *1:6 1:9 Cooks................................... 16,601 18,615 459 733 *1:28 1:39 Laborers, except construction........... 16,535 97,721 201 923 1:12 1:9 Janitors and cleaners................... 14,966 37,258 345 993 *1:23 1:27 Waiters and waitresses.................. 13,705 3,697 418 169 *1:30 1:46 Sales supervisors and proprietors....... 13,304 12,339 1,191 1,763 *1:90 1:143 Kitchen workers, food preparing......... 13,138 4,285 75 39 *1:6 1:9 Licensed practical nurses............... 12,771 457 266 14 *1:21 1:31 Stock handlers and baggers.............. 11,150 23,413 144 357 *1:13 1:15 Textile sewing machine operators........ 9,804 1,522 458 78 *1:47 1:51 Truck drivers........................... 9,657 141,101 62 2,201 *1:6 1:16 Health aides, except nursing............ 9,268 2,163 179 59 *1:19 1:27 Secretaries............................. 7,644 197 2,538 28 1:332 1:142 Hand packers and packagers.............. 6,240 4,867 136 98 1:22 1:20 Public transportation attendants........ 6,212 1,063 44 12 *1:7 1:11 Men Truck drivers........................... 9,657 141,101 62 2,201 *1:6 1:16 Laborers, except construction........... 16,535 97,721 201 923 1:12 1:9 Construction laborers................... 786 42,257 15 662 1:19 1:16 Janitors and cleaners................... 14,966 37,258 345 993 *1:23 1:27 Assemblers.............................. 20,120 35,167 435 708 1:22 1:20 Carpenters.............................. 385 34,435 6 823 *1:16 1:24 Welders and cutters..................... 1,395 28,381 26 531 1:19 1:19 Stock handlers and baggers.............. 11,150 23,413 144 357 *1:13 1:15 Groundskeepers, gardeners, except farm.. 982 20,394 21 497 *1:21 1:24 Automobile mechanics.................... 146 19,480 3 616 *1:21 1:32 Shipping and receiving clerks........... 4,534 19,208 172 415 1:38 1:22 Electricians............................ 293 17,719 12 596 1:41 1:34 Miscellaneous food preparation jobs..... 16,813 17,179 98 149 *1:6 1:9 Drivers-sales workers................... 1,555 15,993 5 130 *1:3 1:8 Plumbers, pipefitters, and steamfitters. 250 15,221 6 393 *1:24 1:26 Bus, truck, and stationary engine mechanics.............................. 133 14,012 1 280 *1:8 1:20 Industrial truck operators.............. 1,081 13,989 35 451 1:32 1:32 Farm workers............................ 2,275 13,743 78 507 *1:34 1:37 Industrial machinery repairers.......... 661 13,662 17 519 *1:26 1:38 Machinists.............................. 368 11,107 33 448 1:90 1:40 1 The employment figures are annual average estimates of employed civilians, age 16 and older, from the Current Population Survey, 1995. 2 An asterisk (*) indicates that women have a greater chance than men of incurring an injury: Chance = employment / nonfatal cases. SOURCE: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Survey of Occupational Injuries and Illnesses, 1995