A Profile of the Working Poor, 1998
U.S. Department of Labor
Bureau of Labor Statistics
August 2000
Report 944
About 34.5 million people, or 12.7 percent of the population, lived at or below the official poverty level in 1998—1.1 million fewer than in 1997. Although the Nation's poor were primarily children and adults who did not participate in the labor force, about 7.2 million persons were classified as the "working poor." This was nearly 300,000 fewer than in 1997. The working poor are individuals who spent at least 27 weeks in the labor force (working or looking for work), but whose family or personal incomes fell below the official poverty level. The poverty rate—defined in this report as the ratio of the working poor to persons in the labor force for at least 27 weeks—fell 0.3 percentage point to 5.4 percent in 1998. (See tables A and 1.)
Full-time work substantially lowers a person's probability of being poor. Among persons in the labor force for 27 weeks or more, the poverty rate for those usually employed full time was 4.1 percent, compared with 10.6 percent for part-time workers. Nevertheless, the majority of the working poor—63.3 percent—were full-time workers. Only a very small proportion of the working poor (5.1 percent) actively sought a job for more than 6 months in 1998 without finding any work. This was down from 6.8 percent in 1997.
This report presents data on the relationships between labor force activity and poverty in 1998 for individual workers and their families. The data were collected in the work experience and income supplement to the March 1999 Current Population Survey (CPS). For a more detailed description of the source of the data and an explanation of the concepts and definitions used in this report, see the technical note.
The earnings thresholds that are established to determine poverty status are in terms of family earnings, rather than personal earnings, if related individuals reside in the household. Thus, earnings from an individual's employment are only one factor in that person's poverty status; if the individual lives with family, then the earnings of others in the family and the presence of dependents also are important.
Table A. Poverty status of persons and primary families in the labor force
for 27 weeks or more, 1995-98
(Numbers in thousands)
Characteristic 1995 1996 1997 1998
Total persons 1 126,020 128,320 130,047 131,731
In poverty 7,484 7,421 7,453 7,158
Poverty rate 5.9 5.8 5.7 5.4
Unrelated individuals 24,207 25,539 26,158 26,971
In poverty 2,312 2,423 2,534 2,281
Poverty rate 9.5 9.5 9.7 8.5
Primary families 2 57,262 58,087 58,815 59,621
In poverty 4,008 4,084 4,068 4,019
Poverty rate 7.0 7.0 6.9 6.7
1 Includes persons in families, not shown separately.
2 Primary families with at least one member in the labor force for more than half of the year.
Demographic characteristics
Among those who were in the labor force for 27 weeks or more in 1998, the proportion of women classified as working poor (6.3 percent) was much higher than that of men (4.7 percent). The rate for women had been as high as 7.3 percent as recently as 1993. The rate for men continued its steady decline from a high of 6.2 percent in 1993. (See table 2.)
Working wives were less likely than working husbands to be poor (in aggregate) because working wives were more likely to be in families with a second earner. In 1998, about 2.0 percent of married women who were in the labor force for 27 weeks or more were in poverty, compared with 3.7 percent of married men. In contrast, 20.4 percent of women who maintained families and who were in the labor force for at least 6 months were in poverty. Part of the explanation for the very high poverty rate among women who maintain families is that they are less likely to be in households in which another family member is an earner. (See "Family structure," below.)
Among those who were in the labor force for 6 months or more in 1998, 4.7 percent of whites were classified as working poor, compared with 10.8 percent of blacks and 12.5 percent of Hispanics. The chances of being among the working poor decline substantially with age, in part because earnings are higher and unemployment is lower among older workers than among younger ones. The poverty rate for teenagers who were in the labor force for 27 weeks or more fell substantially, from 11.6 percent in 1997 to 8.6 percent in 1998. The decline was due in part to a nearly 9-percentage-point drop in the rate for black teens. (See table 2.)
Educational attainment
Lack of education and poverty are closely related among those in the labor force for at least half of the year. In 1998, 14.5 percent of high school dropouts were among the working poor, more than double the proportion for high school graduates (6.6 percent). The poverty rates were even lower for workers with an associate degree (2.5 percent) and for college graduates (1.4 percent). At all major levels of educational attainment, the proportions among the working poor were higher for women and blacks than for men and whites. (See table 3.)
Occupation
Nearly 12 percent of those who were in the labor force for at least 27 weeks, and whose longest job was a service occupation, lived below the poverty line. The 2.0 million working poor in these occupations accounted for nearly 30 percent of all workers living in poverty. Within the category of service workers, private household workers, almost all of whom were women, were the most likely to be in poverty (19.4 percent). Among the other major occupation groups, workers in farming, forestry, and fishing had the highest incidence of poverty in 1998 at 16.0 percent. The lowest poverty rates were for those employed in executive, administrative, and managerial occupations and in professional specialty jobs (1.4 percent), in which high earnings and full-time employment are typical. (See table 4.)
Family structure
Among families with at least one member in the labor force for 27 weeks or more in 1998, 4.0 million, or 6.7 percent, had incomes at or below the poverty line, about the same as in 1997. The poverty threshold for families reflects both total family income and the number of family members; thus, the larger the family, the higher the level of income needed to keep the family out of poverty. This, coupled with the fact that the presence of children tends to decrease the overall labor supply of a family, creates a circumstance in which the larger the family, the more likely it is to be below the poverty line. Consequently, families with children under age 18 were much more likely to be counted as working poor families than those without children (10.2 percent and 2.1 percent, respectively).
The likelihood that a family was living below the poverty line falls dramatically if more then one member was in the labor force for at least 6 months. Only 2.2 percent of families with two labor force participants and 1.0 percent of families with three or more participants were among the working poor. In contrast, 13.6 percent of families with only one member in the labor force were in poverty. (See tables 5 and 6.)
Unrelated individuals
Unrelated individuals are persons who live either alone or with nonrelatives. Of the 27 million unrelated individuals who were in the labor force for 27 weeks or more in 1998, 2.3 million, or 8.5 percent, lived below the poverty level. This rate was down from 9.7 percent in 1997.
Two types of living situations characterize unrelated individuals: some live by themselves, while some share housing with other unrelated persons. Of those who were labor force participants for more than 6 months in 1998, those living with unrelated individuals were much more likely to be among the working poor (11.7 percent) than were those living alone (5.6 percent). It should be noted that the poverty status of unrelated individuals is determined by their personal, rather than household, incomes. To the extent that unrelated individuals with low incomes live with others in order to share expenses and pool their resources, the proportion of these workers in poverty, in terms of their standard of living, may be overstated. Conversely, many of those who live alone do so because they have sufficient incomes to support themselves. (See table 7.)
Labor market problems
As noted above, people who usually work full time—that is, 35 hours or more per week—are far less likely to live in poverty than are others. However, there remains a sizable group of full-time workers who live below the poverty threshold. There are three primary labor market problems experienced by these full-time workers: Unemployment, low earnings, and involuntary part-time employment. (See definitions in the technical note.) Among those who participated in the labor force for than more half of the year and who usually worked in full-time wage and salary jobs, 3.8 million, or 3.7 percent, were classified as working poor in 1998, little changed from the prior year. (See table 8.)
About 83 percent of the working poor who usually worked full time experienced at least one of the major labor market problems. Low earnings continued to be the most common problem; about 7 in 10 poor workers faced low earnings, either alone or in conjunction with other labor market problems. Nearly a third of the working poor experienced unemployment, alone or in conjunction with other problems. Only 1 in 20 experienced all three problems—low earnings, unemployment, and involuntary part-time employment.
Some 650,000 of these working poor, or 17.2 percent, did not experience any of the three primary labor market problems in 1998. Their poverty status may be associated with other factors, including short-term employment, some weeks of voluntary part-time work, or a family structure that increases the risk of poverty.
Technical Note
Source of data
The primary source of data in this report is the work experience and income supplement (called the Annual Demographic Survey) to the March 1999 Current Population Survey (CPS). The CPS is a monthly survey of about 50,000 households conducted by the U.S. Census Bureau for the Bureau of Labor Statistics to collect demographic, social, and economic information about persons 16 years of age and older. The work experience and income information collected in the March supplement refers to activity in the entire prior calendar year.
The estimates are based on a sample; consequently, they may differ from the figures that would have been obtained from a complete census using the same questionnaire and procedures. Sampling variability may be relatively large in cases where the numbers are small. Thus, small estimates, or small differences between estimates, should be interpreted with caution. For a detailed explanation of the March supplement to the Current Population Survey, its sampling variability, and more complete definitions than those provided below, see Poverty in the United States: 1998—Current Population Reports, Series P-60, No. 207 (U.S. Census Bureau, September 1999). This publication also is available on the U.S. Census Bureau website (https://www.census.gov).
Information in this report will be made available to sensory impaired individuals upon request. Voice phone: (202) 691-5200; Federal Relay Service: 1-800-877-8339. This material is in the public domain and, with appropriate credit, may be reproduced without permission.
For more information on the data provided in this report, write to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, Division of Labor Force Statistics, Room 4675, 2 Massachusetts Avenue, NE, Washington, DC 20212, e-mail: cpsinfo@bls.gov or telephone (202) 691-6378.
Concepts and definitions
Poverty classification. Poverty statistics presented in this report are based on definitions developed by the Social Security Administration in 1964 and revised by Federal interagency committees in 1969 and 1981. These definitions originally were based on the Department of Agriculture's Economy Food Plan and reflected the different consumption requirements of families based on factors such as family size and the number of children under 18 years of age.
The actual poverty thresholds vary in accordance with the makeup of the family. In 1998, the average poverty threshold for a family of four was $16,660; for a family of nine or more persons, the threshold was $33,339; and for an unrelated individual aged 65 or older, it was $7,818. The poverty thresholds are updated each year to reflect changes in the Consumer Price Index for All Urban Consumers (CPI-U). The thresholds do not vary geographically. For more information, see Poverty in the United States: 1998, cited above.
Low earnings. The low earnings level, as first developed in 1987, represented the average of the real value of the minimum wage between 1967 and 1987 for a 40-hour week. The base year of 1967 was chosen because that was the first year in which minimum-wage legislation covered essentially the same broad group of workers who currently are covered. The low earnings level has subsequently been adjusted each year using the CPI-U, so that the measure maintains the same real value that it held in 1987. In 1998, the low earnings threshold was $239.91 per week. For a more complete definition, see Bruce W. Klein and Philip L. Rones, "A Profile of the Working Poor," Monthly Labor Review, October 1989, pp. 3-13.
Income. Data on income are limited to money income received in the calendar year preceding the March survey date, before personal income taxes and payroll deductions. It does not include the value of noncash benefits such as Food Stamps, medicare, medicaid, public housing, and employer-provided benefits. For a complete definition of the income concept, see Poverty in the United States: 1998, cited above.
In the labor force. Persons in the labor force are those who worked or looked for work sometime during the calendar year preceding the March survey date. The number of weeks in the labor force is accumulated over the entire year. The focus in this report is on persons in the labor force for 27 weeks or more.
Involuntary part-time workers. These are persons who, in at least 1 week of the year, worked fewer than 35 hours because of slack work or business conditions, or because they could not find full-time work. The number of weeks of involuntary part-time work is accumulated over the year.
Occupation. Refers to the occupation in which a person worked the most weeks during the calendar year.
Unemployed. Unemployed persons are those who looked for work while not employed or those who were on layoff from a job and expecting recall. The number of weeks unemployed is accumulated over the entire year.
Family. A family is defined as a group of two or more persons residing together who are related by birth, marriage, or adoption. Persons in related subfamilies—-married couples or parent-child groups sharing the living quarters of another family member-—are included as members of that family and are not distinct family units. The count of families used in this report does not include unrelated subfamilies, such as lodgers, guests, or resident employees living in a household but not related to the householder (the person in whose name the housing unit is owned or rented). Families are classified either as married-couple families or as those maintained by men or women without spouses present. Family status is determined at the time of the March interview, and thus may be different from that of the previous year.
Unrelated individuals. These are persons who are not living with any relatives. Such individuals may be living alone, reside in a nonrelated family household, or live in group quarters with other unrelated individuals.
Related children. Data on related children refer to own children (including sons, daughters, and step or adopted children) of the husband, wife, or person maintaining the family and all other children related to the householder by birth, marriage, or adoption.
Race. White, black, and other are terms used to describe the race of workers. Included in the "other" group are American Indians, Alaskan Natives, and Asians and Pacific Islanders; because of their relatively small sample size, data for this group are not separately tabulated or published.
Hispanic origin. This term refers to persons who identify themselves in the CPS enumeration process as Mexican, Puerto Rican, Cuban, Central or South American, or of some other Hispanic origin or descent. Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race; thus, they also are included in both the white and black population groups.
Thomas M. Beers, an economist in the Division of Labor Force Statistics, Bureau of Labor Statistics, prepared this report.
Table 1. Persons in the labor force: Poverty status and work experience by weeks in the labor force, 1998
(Numbers in thousands)
27 weeks or more in the labor force
Poverty status and work experience Total in the labor
force
Total 50 to 52 weeks
TOTAL
Total in labor force.................................... 146,570 131,731 117,858
Did not work during the year.......................... 1,729 726 643
Worked during the year................................ 144,841 131,005 117,216
Usual full-time workers............................. 115,697 109,619 101,787
Usual part-time workers............................. 29,144 21,386 15,428
Involuntary part-time workers..................... 4,202 3,378 2,611
Voluntary part-time workers....................... 24,942 18,008 12,817
At or above poverty level
Total in labor force.................................... 136,666 124,573 112,126
Did not work during the year.......................... 935 364 313
Worked during the year................................ 135,731 124,210 111,814
Usual full-time workers............................. 109,941 105,091 98,008
Usual part-time workers............................. 25,790 19,118 13,806
Involuntary part-time workers..................... 3,081 2,508 1,952
Voluntary part-time workers....................... 22,709 16,611 11,853
Below poverty level
Total in labor force.................................... 9,903 7,158 5,732
Did not work during the year.......................... 794 362 330
Worked during the year................................ 9,110 6,796 5,402
Usual full-time workers............................. 5,756 4,528 3,779
Usual part-time workers............................. 3,354 2,268 1,623
Involuntary part-time workers..................... 1,121 871 659
Voluntary part-time workers....................... 2,233 1,397 964
Poverty rate(1)
Total in labor force.................................... 6.8 5.4 4.9
Did not work during the year.......................... 45.9 49.9 51.3
Worked during the year................................ 6.3 5.2 4.6
Usual full-time workers............................. 5.0 4.1 3.7
Usual part-time workers............................. 11.5 10.6 10.5
Involuntary part-time workers..................... 26.7 25.8 25.2
Voluntary part-time workers....................... 9.0 7.8 7.5
1 Number below the poverty level as a percent of the total in the labor force.
NOTE: Data refer to persons 16 years and older. Data for 1998, which were collected in the March 1999 supplement to the
Current Population Survey (CPS), are not strictly comparable with data for 1997 and earlier years because of the
introduction in January 1999 of revised population controls used in the survey. For additional information, see "Revisions
in the Current Population Survey Effective January 1999" in the February 1999 issue of Employment and Earnings.
Table 2. Persons in the labor force for 27 weeks or more: Poverty status by age, sex, race, and Hispanic origin, 1998
(Numbers in thousands)
Below poverty level Poverty rate(1)
Hispanic
Age and sex Total White Black origin
Total White Black Hispanic Total White Black Hispanic
origin origin
Total, 16 years and older... 131,731 110,617 15,041 13,341 7,158 5,219 1,617 1,665 5.4 4.7 10.8 12.5
16 to 19 years.................. 5,101 4,371 554 589 439 340 80 122 8.6 7.8 14.4 20.6
20 to 24 years.................. 12,362 10,210 1,591 1,844 1,361 1,021 291 297 11.0 10.0 18.3 16.1
25 to 34 years.................. 31,077 25,248 4,157 4,086 2,138 1,485 549 554 6.9 5.9 13.2 13.6
35 to 44 years.................. 36,697 30,575 4,375 3,563 1,881 1,390 406 458 5.1 4.5 9.3 12.9
45 to 54 years.................. 28,653 24,480 2,927 2,148 789 577 165 166 2.8 2.4 5.6 7.7
55 to 64 years.................. 13,770 12,063 1,164 923 446 325 110 59 3.2 2.7 9.5 6.4
65 years and older.............. 4,070 3,670 273 188 105 80 17 10 2.6 2.2 6.2 5.1
Men, 16 years and older..... 71,067 60,783 7,015 7,912 3,364 2,689 506 999 4.7 4.4 7.2 12.6
16 to 19 years.................. 2,617 2,257 269 322 184 146 31 52 7.1 6.5 11.6 16.2
20 to 24 years.................. 6,521 5,512 734 1,129 619 502 92 189 9.5 9.1 12.5 16.8
25 to 34 years.................. 16,977 14,080 1,961 2,557 982 773 165 360 5.8 5.5 8.4 14.1
35 to 44 years.................. 19,932 16,949 2,031 2,049 879 723 106 264 4.4 4.3 5.2 12.9
45 to 54 years.................. 15,168 13,174 1,376 1,202 420 327 66 98 2.8 2.5 4.8 8.2
55 to 64 years.................. 7,565 6,718 522 527 225 170 45 33 3.0 2.5 8.5 6.3
65 years and older.............. 2,287 2,093 122 127 54 49 1 3 2.4 2.3 1.2 2.0
Women, 16 years and older... 60,664 49,834 8,026 5,428 3,795 2,530 1,111 666 6.3 5.1 13.8 12.3
16 to 19 years.................. 2,484 2,115 285 267 254 194 49 69 10.2 9.2 17.1 26.0
20 to 24 years.................. 5,841 4,698 857 715 742 519 199 107 12.7 11.0 23.2 15.0
25 to 34 years.................. 14,100 11,168 2,196 1,529 1,156 713 383 194 8.2 6.4 17.5 12.7
35 to 44 years.................. 16,765 13,625 2,344 1,514 1,002 667 300 194 6.0 4.9 12.8 12.8
45 to 54 years.................. 13,485 11,306 1,551 946 368 250 99 68 2.7 2.2 6.4 7.2
55 to 64 years.................. 6,205 5,345 642 396 221 155 66 26 3.6 2.9 10.2 6.5
65 years and older.............. 1,783 1,577 151 61 51 32 15 7 2.9 2.0 10.2 (2)
1 Number below the poverty level as a percent of the total in the labor force for 27 weeks or more who worked during the
year.
2 Data not shown where base is less than 75,000.
NOTE: Detail for race and Hispanic-origin groups will not sum to totals because data for the "other races" group are not
presented and Hispanics are included in both the white and black population groups. Data for 1998, which were collected in
the March 1999 supplement to the Current Population Survey (CPS), are not strictly comparable with data for 1997 and earlier
years because of the introduction in January 1999 of revised population controls used in the survey. For additional
information, see "Revisions in the Current Population Survey Effective January 1999" in the February 1999 issue of
Employment and Earnings.
Table 3. Persons in the labor force for 27 weeks or more: Poverty status by educational attainment, race, and sex, 1998
(Numbers in thousands)
Below poverty level Poverty rate(1)
Educational attainment and race Total Men Women
Total Men Women Total Men Women
Total, 16 years and older..................... 131,731 71,067 60,664 7,158 3,364 3,795 5.4 4.7 6.3
Less than a high school diploma................... 16,196 9,830 6,366 2,342 1,277 1,066 14.5 13.0 16.7
Less than 1 year of high school................. 4,456 2,941 1,515 796 535 261 17.9 18.2 17.2
1-3 years of high school........................ 10,098 5,830 4,268 1,330 609 721 13.2 10.4 16.9
4 years of high school, no diploma.............. 1,642 1,059 583 216 132 83 13.1 12.5 14.3
High school graduates, no college................. 42,760 23,003 19,757 2,825 1,254 1,571 6.6 5.5 7.9
Some college, no degree........................... 26,365 13,445 12,919 1,176 472 704 4.5 3.5 5.5
Associate degree.................................. 10,780 5,280 5,500 306 105 201 2.8 2.0 3.7
College graduates................................. 35,630 19,508 16,122 509 256 253 1.4 1.3 1.6
White, 16 years and older..................... 110,617 60,783 49,834 5,219 2,689 2,530 4.7 4.4 5.1
Less than a high school diploma................... 13,213 8,316 4,897 1,799 1,063 736 13.6 12.8 15.0
Less than 1 year of high school................. 3,835 2,589 1,246 710 485 225 18.5 18.7 18.1
1-3 years of high school........................ 8,147 4,888 3,259 928 475 453 11.4 9.7 13.9
4 years of high school, no diploma.............. 1,231 839 392 162 104 58 13.1 12.4 14.7
High school graduates, no college................. 35,705 19,435 16,270 1,965 958 1,006 5.5 4.9 6.2
Some college, no degree........................... 21,685 11,274 10,411 829 374 455 3.8 3.3 4.4
Associate degree.................................. 9,304 4,616 4,689 221 76 145 2.4 1.6 3.1
College graduates................................. 30,709 17,142 13,568 404 217 187 1.3 1.3 1.4
Black, 16 years and older..................... 15,041 7,015 8,026 1,617 506 1,111 10.8 7.2 13.8
Less than a high school diploma................... 2,211 1,089 1,123 444 151 293 20.1 13.9 26.1
Less than 1 year of high school................. 367 221 145 42 17 25 11.4 7.6 17.1
1-3 years of high school........................ 1,542 712 830 354 111 243 23.0 15.6 29.3
4 years of high school, no diploma.............. 303 156 147 48 23 25 15.9 14.8 17.0
High school graduates, no college................. 5,661 2,820 2,841 769 252 517 13.6 8.9 18.2
Some college, no degree........................... 3,578 1,598 1,980 281 63 218 7.9 3.9 11.0
Associate degree.................................. 1,020 431 590 51 12 39 5.0 2.9 6.6
College graduates................................. 2,571 1,079 1,492 72 28 44 2.8 2.6 3.0
1 Number below the poverty level as a percent of the total in the labor force for 27 weeks or more who worked during the year.
NOTE: Data for 1998, which were collected in the March 1999 supplement to the Current Population Survey (CPS), are not strictly
comparable with data for 1997 and earlier years because of the introduction in January 1999 of revised population controls used in
the survey. For additional information, see "Revisions in the Current Population Survey Effective January 1999" in the February
1999 issue of Employment and Earnings.
Table 4. Persons in the labor force for 27 weeks or more who worked during the year: Poverty status by occupation of the longest
job held, race, and sex, 1998
(Numbers in thousands)
Below poverty level Poverty rate(1)
Occupation and race Total Men Women
Total Men Women Total Men Women
Total, 16 years and older(2).................. 131,005 70,691 60,314 6,796 3,197 3,598 5.2 4.5 6.0
Managerial and professional specialty............. 39,094 19,729 19,364 589 276 312 1.5 1.4 1.6
Executive, administrative, and managerial....... 19,316 10,492 8,824 263 145 119 1.4 1.4 1.3
Professional specialty.......................... 19,778 9,237 10,541 325 132 194 1.6 1.4 1.8
Technical, sales, and administrative support...... 37,976 13,872 24,104 1,662 383 1,279 4.4 2.8 5.3
Technicians and related support................. 4,236 2,016 2,220 66 29 37 1.6 1.4 1.7
Sales occupations............................... 15,750 8,088 7,662 949 261 688 6.0 3.2 9.0
Administrative support, including clerical...... 17,990 3,768 14,222 648 93 554 3.6 2.5 3.9
Service occupations............................... 17,535 6,916 10,619 2,013 564 1,448 11.5 8.2 13.6
Private household............................... 696 30 666 135 7 129 19.4 (3) 19.3
Protective service.............................. 2,408 1,942 466 64 25 39 2.6 1.3 8.4
Service, except private household and protective 14,431 4,944 9,488 1,814 533 1,281 12.6 10.8 13.5
Precision production, craft, and repair........... 14,766 13,472 1,294 660 596 64 4.5 4.4 4.9
Operators, fabricators, and laborers.............. 18,226 13,903 4,322 1,353 962 391 7.4 6.9 9.0
Machine operators, assemblers, and inspectors... 7,621 4,869 2,752 487 266 221 6.4 5.5 8.0
Transportation and material moving occupations.. 5,350 4,801 549 331 278 53 6.2 5.8 9.7
Handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and
laborers....................................... 5,255 4,234 1,021 534 418 116 10.2 9.9 11.4
Farming, forestry, and fishing.................... 3,239 2,644 595 518 414 104 16.0 15.7 17.5
White, 16 years and older(2)................ 110,148 60,503 49,644 5,011 2,575 2,436 4.5 4.3 4.9
Managerial and professional specialty............. 34,027 17,523 16,504 453 240 213 1.3 1.4 1.3
Executive, administrative, and managerial....... 16,981 9,473 7,509 208 131 77 1.2 1.4 1.0
Professional specialty.......................... 17,046 8,050 8,995 245 110 135 1.4 1.4 1.5
Technical, sales, and administrative support...... 32,068 11,842 20,226 1,176 282 894 3.7 2.4 4.4
Technicians and related support................. 3,540 1,716 1,824 43 28 16 1.2 1.6 .9
Sales occupations............................... 13,565 7,116 6,449 659 192 468 4.9 2.7 7.3
Administrative support, including clerical...... 14,963 3,010 11,954 473 63 410 3.2 2.1 3.4
Service occupations............................... 13,454 5,420 8,034 1,357 425 931 10.1 7.8 11.6
Private household............................... 536 26 510 104 7 97 19.4 (3) 19.1
Protective service.............................. 1,818 1,517 301 33 16 17 1.8 1.1 5.5
Service, except private household and protective 11,100 3,877 7,223 1,220 402 817 11.0 10.4 11.3
Precision production, craft, and repair........... 13,029 12,003 1,025 556 510 46 4.3 4.3 4.5
Operators, fabricators, and laborers.............. 14,466 11,188 3,278 1,014 762 252 7.0 6.8 7.7
Machine operators, assemblers, and inspectors... 6,011 3,965 2,046 355 211 144 5.9 5.3 7.0
Transportation and material moving occupations.. 4,343 3,900 444 250 216 34 5.8 5.5 7.7
Handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and
laborers....................................... 4,112 3,324 788 410 335 75 10.0 10.1 9.5
Farming, forestry, and fishing.................... 2,974 2,407 567 456 355 100 15.3 14.8 17.7
Black, 16 years and older(2)................ 14,823 6,937 7,886 1,480 461 1,019 10.0 6.7 12.9
Managerial and professional specialty............. 3,011 1,121 1,890 94 21 74 3.1 1.9 3.9
Executive, administrative, and managerial....... 1,441 549 891 34 4 30 2.4 .7 3.4
Professional specialty.......................... 1,570 572 999 60 17 43 3.8 3.0 4.3
Technical, sales, and administrative support...... 4,233 1,303 2,930 405 69 336 9.6 5.3 11.5
Technicians and related support................. 447 197 250 16 - 16 3.7 - 6.5
Sales occupations............................... 1,431 562 870 233 46 187 16.3 8.3 21.5
Administrative support, including clerical...... 2,355 545 1,810 156 23 133 6.6 4.2 7.3
Service occupations............................... 3,286 1,159 2,127 584 101 482 17.8 8.8 22.7
Private household............................... 128 5 123 27 - 27 21.2 - 21.9
Protective service.............................. 538 381 157 28 6 22 5.2 1.6 13.8
Service, except private household and protective 2,620 773 1,847 529 95 434 20.2 12.3 23.5
Precision production, craft, and repair........... 1,187 1,016 171 59 52 7 5.0 5.2 3.9
Operators, fabricators, and laborers.............. 2,882 2,131 750 283 165 117 9.8 7.8 15.7
Machine operators, assemblers, and inspectors... 1,135 634 501 107 40 67 9.4 6.3 13.3
Transportation and material moving occupations.. 833 749 84 73 54 19 8.7 7.2 22.5
Handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and
laborers....................................... 913 748 165 104 72 32 11.4 9.6 19.2
Farming, forestry, and fishing.................... 188 173 14 55 52 3 29.1 30.1 (3)
1 Number below the poverty level as a percent of the total in the labor force for 27 weeks or more who worked during the year.
2 Includes a small number of persons whose last job was in the Armed Forces.
3 Data not shown where base is less than 75,000.
NOTE: Data for 1998, which were collected in the March 1999 supplement to the Current Population Survey (CPS), are not
strictly comparable with data for 1997 and earlier years because of the introduction in January 1999 of revised population controls
used in the survey. For additional information, see "Revisions in the Current Population Survey Effective January 1999" in the
February 1999 issue of Employment and Earnings. Dash represents or rounds to zero.
Table 5. Persons in families and unrelated individuals: Poverty status and work experience, 1998
(Numbers in thousands)
In married-couple families In families maintained In families maintained
by women by men Unre-
Poverty status and work Total lated
experience persons indi-
Hus- Related Other House- Related Other House- Related Other viduals
bands Wives children rela- holder children rela- holder children rela-
under 18 tives under 18 tives under 18 tives
TOTAL
All persons........... 207,038 54,184 54,725 5,384 17,109 12,781 1,904 9,641 3,958 433 3,858 43,061
With labor force activity. 146,570 43,299 36,131 2,510 12,765 9,462 785 6,553 3,225 167 2,608 29,065
1 to 26 weeks........... 14,838 1,566 3,810 1,484 2,815 973 520 1,027 173 100 276 2,094
27 weeks or more........ 131,731 41,734 32,320 1,026 9,950 8,489 264 5,526 3,052 67 2,332 26,971
With no labor force
activity............... 60,468 10,884 18,595 2,874 4,344 3,319 1,120 3,088 733 266 1,250 13,995
At or above poverty level
All persons........... 184,813 51,338 51,851 5,027 16,434 8,953 1,265 8,192 3,484 391 3,522 34,355
With labor force activity. 136,666 41,565 35,162 2,412 12,482 7,084 655 5,981 2,937 157 2,479 25,753
1 to 26 weeks........... 12,093 1,380 3,499 1,422 2,715 330 418 825 107 91 243 1,063
27 weeks or more........ 124,573 40,184 31,663 990 9,766 6,754 238 5,156 2,830 65 2,237 24,690
With no labor force
activity............... 48,147 9,773 16,689 2,615 3,952 1,869 610 2,211 547 235 1,043 8,603
Below poverty level
All persons........... 22,225 2,846 2,874 357 675 3,828 639 1,449 474 42 336 8,705
With labor force activity. 9,903 1,735 968 97 284 2,378 129 572 288 11 128 3,313
1 to 26 weeks........... 2,745 186 311 62 100 643 103 202 65 9 33 1,031
27 weeks or more........ 7,158 1,549 657 36 184 1,735 27 370 223 2 95 2,281
With no labor force
activity............... 12,322 1,111 1,906 259 391 1,450 510 877 186 31 208 5,393
Poverty rate(1)
All persons........... 10.7 5.3 5.3 6.6 3.9 29.9 33.6 15.0 12.0 9.7 8.7 20.2
With labor force activity. 6.8 4.0 2.7 3.9 2.2 25.1 16.5 8.7 8.9 6.5 4.9 11.4
1 to 26 weeks........... 18.5 11.9 8.2 4.1 3.6 66.1 19.7 19.7 37.7 9.2 12.0 49.2
27 weeks or more........ 5.4 3.7 2.0 3.5 1.8 20.4 10.1 6.7 7.3 2.6 4.1 8.5
With no labor force
activity............... 20.4 10.2 10.2 9.0 9.0 43.7 45.5 28.4 25.4 11.7 16.6 38.5
1 Number below the poverty level as a percent of the total in the labor force.
NOTE: Data refer to persons 16 years and older. Data for 1998, which were collected in the March 1999 supplement to the
Current Population Survey (CPS), are not strictly comparable with data for 1997 and earlier years because of the introduction in
January 1999 of revised population controls used in the survey. For additional information, see "Revisions in the Current
Population Survey Effective January 1999" in the February 1999 issue of Employment and Earnings.
Table 6. Primary families: Poverty status, presence of related children, and work experience of family
members in the labor force for 27 weeks or more, 1998
(Numbers in thousands)
Characteristic Total families At or above Below poverty Poverty
poverty level level rate(1)
Total primary families.................... 59,621 55,602 4,019 6.7
With related children under 18.................... 34,201 30,728 3,473 10.2
Without children.................................. 25,420 24,874 546 2.1
With one member in the labor force................ 24,442 21,122 3,320 13.6
With two or more members in the labor force....... 35,179 34,481 698 2.0
With two members................................ 29,356 28,713 643 2.2
With three or more members...................... 5,823 5,768 55 1.0
Married-couple families:
With related children under 18.................. 25,428 23,939 1,489 5.9
Without children................................ 20,721 20,385 336 1.6
With one member in the labor force.............. 15,141 13,841 1,300 8.6
Husband....................................... 11,429 10,381 1,048 9.2
Wife.......................................... 3,014 2,817 196 6.5
Relative...................................... 698 643 56 8.0
With two or more members in the labor force..... 31,008 30,483 525 1.7
With two members.............................. 25,915 25,433 482 1.9
With three or more members.................... 5,093 5,050 43 .8
Families maintained by women:
With related children under 18.................. 6,896 5,135 1,761 25.5
Without children................................ 3,084 2,921 163 5.3
With one member in the labor force.............. 7,191 5,405 1,786 24.8
Householder................................... 5,987 4,371 1,616 27.0
Relative...................................... 1,204 1,034 170 14.1
With two or more members in the labor force..... 2,789 2,651 138 5.0
Families maintained by men:
With related children under 18.................. 1,876 1,654 223 11.9
Without children................................ 1,615 1,568 47 2.9
With one member in the labor force.............. 2,110 1,875 235 11.1
Householder................................... 1,784 1,589 194 10.9
Relative...................................... 326 286 40 12.4
With two or more members in the labor force..... 1,382 1,347 35 2.5
1 Number below the poverty level as a percent of the total in the labor force for 27 weeks or more.
NOTE: Data relate to primary families with at least one member in the labor force for 27 weeks or more.
Data for 1998, which were collected in the March 1999 supplement to the Current Population Survey (CPS), are
not strictly comparable with data for 1997 and earlier years because of the introduction in January 1999 of
revised population controls used in the survey. For additional information, see "Revisions in the Current
Population Survey Effective January 1999" in the February 1999 issue of Employment and Earnings.
Table 7. Unrelated individuals in the labor force for 27 weeks or more: Poverty status by age, sex, race, Hispanic origin,
and living arrangement, 1998
(Numbers in thousands)
At or above Below Poverty
Characteristic Total poverty poverty rate(1)
level level
Age and sex
Total unrelated individuals...................................... 26,971 24,690 2,281 8.5
16 to 19 years.......................................................... 545 348 197 36.1
20 to 24 years.......................................................... 3,514 2,862 652 18.6
25 to 64 years.......................................................... 21,825 20,429 1,397 6.4
65 years and older...................................................... 1,086 1,051 36 3.3
Men..................................................................... 15,137 13,946 1,191 7.9
Women................................................................... 11,834 10,744 1,090 9.2
Race and Hispanic origin
White................................................................... 22,673 20,836 1,838 8.1
Men.................................................................. 12,828 11,842 987 7.7
Women................................................................ 9,845 8,994 851 8.6
Black................................................................... 3,237 2,863 375 11.6
Men.................................................................. 1,731 1,551 181 10.4
Women................................................................ 1,506 1,312 194 12.9
Hispanic origin......................................................... 2,233 1,850 383 17.2
Men.................................................................. 1,497 1,227 270 18.0
Women................................................................ 735 622 113 15.4
Living arrangement
Living alone............................................................ 14,382 13,573 810 5.6
Living with others...................................................... 12,589 11,117 1,472 11.7
1 Number below the poverty level as a percent of the total in the labor force for 27 weeks or more who worked during the
year.
NOTE: Detail for race and Hispanic-origin groups will not sum to totals because data for the "other races" group are not
presented and Hispanics are included in both the white and black population groups. Data for 1998, which were collected in
the March 1999 supplement to the Current Population Survey (CPS), are not strictly comparable with data for 1997 and earlier
years because of the introduction in January 1999 of revised population controls used in the survey. For additional
information, see "Revisions in the Current Population Survey Effective January 1999" in the February 1999 issue of
Employment and Earnings.
Table 8. Persons in the labor force for 27 weeks or more: Poverty status and labor market problems of full-time wage and
salary workers, 1998
(Numbers in thousands)
At or above Below Poverty
Poverty status and labor market problems Total poverty poverty rate(1)
level level
Total, full-time wage and salary workers........................... 102,752 98,971 3,781 3.7
No unemployment, involuntary part-time employment, or low earnings(2)... 84,410 83,760 650 .8
Unemployment only....................................................... 5,489 5,141 348 6.3
Involuntary part-time employment only................................... 2,001 1,969 32 1.6
Low earnings only....................................................... 7,357 5,662 1,695 23.0
Unemployment and involuntary part-time employment....................... 969 885 84 8.6
Unemployment and low earnings........................................... 1,428 822 606 42.4
Involuntary part-time employment and low earnings....................... 656 485 171 26.0
Unemployment, involuntary part-time employment, and low earnings........ 443 247 196 44.2
1 Number below the poverty level as a percent of the total in the labor force for 27 weeks or more who worked during the
year.
2 The low earnings threshold in 1998 was $239.91 per week.
NOTE: Data refer to persons 16 years and older. Data for 1998, which were collected in the March 1999 supplement to the
Current Population Survey (CPS), are not strictly comparable with data for 1997 and earlier years because of the
introduction in January 1999 of revised population controls used in the survey. For additional information, see "Revisions
in the Current Population Survey Effective January 1999" in the February 1999 issue of Employment and Earnings.
United States Department of Labor
