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Women in the labor force, 2023: women and workplace flexibilities
The labor market has changed dramatically since the 1940s as technology and other influences changed the demand for labor. Two notable changes have been the rise in women’s participation in the labor force and the expansion of workplace flexibilities. This BLS Report examines two flexibilities—telework and part-time work—and how their usage differs between women and men.
This report presents data from the Current Population Survey (CPS) and the American Time Use Survey (ATUS). The CPS is a nationally representative monthly survey about people’s labor force activities. The ATUS is also a nationally representative survey, but it is conducted continuously and collects information about how people spend their time. CPS data presented here are annual averages; ATUS data are pooled 2-year estimates. (For a detailed description of the data sources and an explanation of concepts and definitions used, see the technical notes.)
Historical trends in women’s labor force participation
Overall, women’s labor force participation increased dramatically from the 1960s through the 1980s and peaked at 60.0 percent in 1999. Labor force participation among women then began a gradual decline that accelerated in the wake of the December 2007–June 2009 recession, hitting a prepandemic low of 56.7 percent in 2015. The rate then rose to 57.4 percent in 2019 before the COVID-19 pandemic affected the labor market. In 2023, the share of women who participated in the labor force was 57.3 percent. (See chart 1.)
Chart 1. Labor force participation rate by sex and age, 1948–2023
Year
Men, total
Women, total
Men, 16 to 24
Women, 16 to 24
Men 25 to 54
Women, 25 to 54
Men, 55 and over
Women, 55 and over
1948
86.6
32.7
75.7
43.9
96.6
35.0
70.6
17.2
1949
86.4
33.1
76.6
43.9
96.5
35.7
69.5
18.0
1950
86.4
33.9
77.3
43.9
96.5
36.8
68.6
18.9
1951
86.5
34.6
76.8
44.8
96.8
38.1
68.2
18.8
1952
86.3
34.7
74.8
43.6
97.2
38.5
67.1
19.3
1953
86.0
34.4
73.6
42.8
97.4
38.3
65.9
19.6
1954
85.5
34.6
71.6
42.6
97.3
38.7
65.7
19.7
1955
85.4
35.7
72.3
43.1
97.4
39.8
64.8
21.6
1956
85.5
36.9
74.1
44.4
97.3
41.0
65.2
22.8
1957
84.8
36.9
73.3
43.7
97.1
41.5
63.4
22.4
1958
84.2
37.1
71.8
43.0
97.1
42.0
62.6
22.6
1959
83.7
37.1
71.5
41.8
97.1
42.3
61.7
23.1
1960
83.3
37.7
71.7
42.8
97.0
42.9
60.9
23.6
1961
82.9
38.1
70.8
43.4
96.9
43.3
60.4
23.9
1962
82.0
37.9
70.0
43.3
96.8
43.4
58.7
23.6
1963
81.4
38.3
69.1
42.9
96.8
44.2
57.7
23.8
1964
81.0
38.7
68.8
43.3
96.8
44.5
57.4
24.3
1965
80.7
39.3
69.0
44.0
96.7
45.2
56.9
24.6
1966
80.4
40.3
69.0
46.5
96.6
46.2
56.5
24.8
1967
80.4
41.1
69.3
47.6
96.6
47.3
56.5
25.0
1968
80.1
41.6
68.3
48.5
96.3
47.9
56.5
25.0
1969
79.8
42.7
68.8
50.4
96.1
49.1
56.1
25.5
1970
79.7
43.3
69.4
51.3
95.8
50.1
55.7
25.3
1971
79.1
43.4
69.6
51.1
95.5
50.3
54.7
25.1
1972
78.9
43.9
71.3
53.0
95.1
51.0
53.4
24.5
1973
78.8
44.7
72.9
54.9
95.0
52.3
51.4
23.8
1974
78.7
45.7
73.7
56.6
94.7
53.9
50.7
23.0
1975
77.9
46.3
72.4
57.2
94.4
55.1
49.4
23.1
1976
77.5
47.3
72.9
58.0
94.2
56.8
47.8
23.0
1977
77.7
48.4
74.1
59.6
94.2
58.5
47.4
22.9
1978
77.9
50.0
74.9
61.7
94.3
60.6
47.2
23.1
1979
77.8
50.9
75.0
62.5
94.4
62.3
46.6
23.2
1980
77.4
51.5
74.4
61.9
94.2
64.0
45.6
22.8
1981
77.0
52.1
73.7
61.9
94.1
65.3
44.5
22.7
1982
76.6
52.6
72.6
62.0
94.0
66.3
43.8
22.7
1983
76.4
52.9
72.5
61.9
93.8
67.1
43.0
22.4
1984
76.4
53.6
72.8
62.8
93.9
68.2
41.8
22.2
1985
76.3
54.5
73.0
63.7
93.9
69.6
41.0
22.0
1986
76.3
55.3
73.0
64.3
93.8
70.8
40.4
22.1
1987
76.2
56.0
72.3
64.6
93.7
71.9
40.4
22.0
1988
76.2
56.6
72.4
64.5
93.6
72.7
39.9
22.3
1989
76.4
57.4
73.0
64.4
93.7
73.6
39.6
23.0
1990
76.4
57.5
71.8
62.9
93.4
74.0
39.4
22.9
1991
75.8
57.4
70.4
61.7
93.1
74.1
38.5
22.6
1992
75.8
57.8
70.5
61.8
93.0
74.6
38.4
22.8
1993
75.4
57.9
70.2
62.0
92.6
74.6
37.7
22.8
1994
75.1
58.8
70.3
62.5
91.7
75.3
37.8
24.0
1995
75.0
58.9
70.2
62.3
91.6
75.6
37.9
23.9
1996
74.9
59.3
68.8
62.2
91.8
76.1
38.3
23.9
1997
75.0
59.8
68.2
62.6
91.8
76.7
38.9
24.6
1998
74.9
59.8
68.4
63.3
91.8
76.5
39.1
25.0
1999
74.7
60.0
68.0
62.9
91.7
76.8
39.6
25.6
2000
74.8
59.9
68.6
63.0
91.6
76.7
40.1
26.1
2001
74.4
59.8
67.0
62.0
91.3
76.4
40.9
27.0
2002
74.1
59.6
65.5
61.1
91.0
75.9
42.0
28.5
2003
73.5
59.5
63.9
59.2
90.6
75.6
42.6
30.0
2004
73.3
59.2
63.6
58.7
90.5
75.3
43.2
30.5
2005
73.3
59.3
62.9
58.6
90.5
75.3
44.2
31.4
2006
73.5
59.4
63.3
57.9
90.6
75.5
44.9
32.3
2007
73.2
59.3
61.5
57.2
90.9
75.4
45.2
33.2
2008
73.0
59.5
61.0
56.5
90.5
75.8
46.0
33.9
2009
72.0
59.2
58.5
55.2
89.7
75.6
46.3
34.7
2010
71.2
58.6
56.8
53.6
89.3
75.2
46.4
35.1
2011
70.5
58.1
56.6
53.3
88.7
74.7
46.3
35.1
2012
70.2
57.7
56.5
53.2
88.7
74.5
46.8
35.1
2013
69.7
57.2
56.6
53.5
88.4
73.9
46.5
35.1
2014
69.2
57.0
56.4
53.6
88.2
73.9
45.9
34.9
2015
69.1
56.7
56.2
53.8
88.3
73.7
45.9
34.7
2016
69.2
56.8
56.5
53.8
88.5
74.3
46.2
34.7
2017
69.1
57.0
56.6
54.3
88.6
75.0
46.1
34.7
2018
69.1
57.1
55.9
54.5
89.0
75.3
46.2
34.7
2019
69.2
57.4
56.6
55.1
89.1
76.0
46.3
35.0
2020
67.7
56.2
54.6
53.2
87.9
75.1
45.1
34.0
2021
67.6
56.1
56.5
54.5
88.0
75.3
44.2
33.3
2022
68.0
56.8
56.5
54.6
88.6
76.4
44.7
33.6
2023
68.1
57.3
56.6
55.9
89.1
77.4
44.2
33.6
Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.
Analyses often focus on workers ages 25 to 54 because people in this age group are the most likely to participate in the labor force and to be employed. Among women ages 25 to 54, the participation rate rose from 35.0 percent in 1948 to 76.8 percent in 1999. In 2023, the labor force participation rate for this group reached a series high of 77.4 percent.
Men’s labor force participation steadily declined since the series began in 1948, when the rate was 86.6 percent. In 2023, the labor force participation rate for men was 68.1 percent, after hitting a historical low in 2021 (67.6 percent). Among men ages 25 to 54, participation declined from the peak rate of 97.4 percent recorded in the mid-1950s and hit a series low of 87.9 percent in 2020. In 2023, their participation rate was 89.1 percent.
Historical trends in the employment–population ratio for women
Similar to the long-term trend in labor force participation, the employment–population ratio (the proportion of the civilian noninstitutional population that is employed) for women climbed steadily from 1948 until it reached a series high of 57.5 percent in 2000. Over the next decade, this ratio gradually trended down with a large decline during the December 2007–June 2009 recession. Beginning in 2012, it resumed a general upward trend until the onset of the pandemic in 2020, when the employment–population ratio for women dropped to 51.5 percent. In 2023, the employment–population ratio for women was 55.4 percent, 2.1 percentage points lower than the series high in 2000. (See chart 2.)
Chart 2. Employment–population ration by sex and age, 1948–2023
Year
Men, total
Women, total
Men, 16 to 24
Women, 16 to 24
Men, 25 to 54
Women, 25 to 54
Men, 55 and over
Women, 55 and over
1948
83.5
31.3
69.7
41.2
94.1
33.7
68.4
16.7
1949
81.3
31.2
67.6
39.8
92.0
33.9
65.9
17.2
1950
82.0
32.0
69.8
40.1
92.6
35.0
65.3
18.1
1951
84.0
33.1
72.6
42.1
94.7
36.6
66.1
18.1
1952
83.9
33.4
70.0
41.0
95.2
37.3
65.3
18.9
1953
83.6
33.3
69.0
40.4
95.3
37.2
64.2
19.2
1954
81.0
32.5
63.1
38.7
93.1
36.6
62.8
18.9
1955
81.8
34.0
65.6
39.8
94.3
38.1
62.1
20.8
1956
82.3
35.1
67.7
40.7
94.4
39.3
62.9
22.0
1957
81.3
35.1
66.2
40.2
94.1
39.8
61.2
21.7
1958
78.5
34.5
61.5
38.1
91.7
39.5
59.2
21.6
1959
79.3
35.0
63.4
37.4
93.0
40.2
58.9
22.3
1960
78.9
35.5
63.4
38.2
92.9
40.7
58.1
22.9
1961
77.6
35.4
61.4
37.9
92.0
40.6
57.0
22.8
1962
77.7
35.6
62.1
38.3
92.9
41.2
56.0
22.7
1963
77.1
35.8
60.8
37.6
93.1
41.9
55.2
22.9
1964
77.3
36.3
61.1
38.2
93.7
42.3
55.1
23.5
1965
77.5
37.1
62.4
39.2
94.1
43.3
55.0
23.9
1966
77.9
38.3
63.7
41.9
94.6
44.5
54.9
24.2
1967
78.0
39.0
63.9
43.0
94.7
45.4
55.1
24.4
1968
77.8
39.6
63.0
43.8
94.7
46.3
55.4
24.5
1969
77.6
40.7
63.4
45.8
94.5
47.4
55.0
24.9
1970
76.2
40.8
61.7
45.7
93.2
47.8
54.1
24.6
1971
74.9
40.4
60.7
44.7
92.1
47.6
52.8
24.3
1972
75.0
41.0
62.8
46.4
92.2
48.5
51.6
23.7
1973
75.5
42.0
65.7
48.8
92.6
50.0
50.0
23.1
1974
74.9
42.6
65.3
49.6
91.8
51.2
49.2
22.3
1975
71.7
42.0
60.4
48.3
89.0
51.0
47.0
21.9
1976
72.0
43.2
62.1
49.6
89.5
52.9
45.7
21.9
1977
72.8
44.5
64.2
51.2
90.1
54.8
45.5
21.9
1978
73.8
46.4
66.1
53.8
91.0
57.3
45.7
22.3
1979
73.8
47.5
66.5
54.8
91.1
59.0
45.2
22.5
1980
72.0
47.7
63.5
53.9
89.4
60.1
44.1
22.1
1981
71.3
48.0
62.2
53.3
89.0
61.2
42.9
21.9
1982
69.0
47.7
58.7
52.0
86.5
61.2
41.6
21.6
1983
68.8
48.0
59.2
52.2
86.1
62.0
40.6
21.4
1984
70.7
49.5
62.3
54.4
88.4
63.9
39.8
21.3
1985
70.9
50.4
62.7
55.4
88.7
65.3
39.3
21.1
1986
71.0
51.4
63.0
56.0
88.5
66.6
38.8
21.3
1987
71.5
52.5
63.2
57.1
89.0
68.2
39.0
21.3
1988
72.0
53.4
64.1
57.6
89.5
69.3
38.6
21.7
1989
72.5
54.3
64.7
57.7
89.9
70.4
38.3
22.4
1990
72.0
54.3
63.5
56.1
89.1
70.6
38.0
22.2
1991
70.4
53.7
60.3
54.0
87.5
70.1
36.8
21.9
1992
69.8
53.8
59.7
53.7
86.8
70.1
36.4
21.8
1993
70.0
54.1
60.1
54.3
87.0
70.4
35.9
22.0
1994
70.4
55.3
61.0
55.3
87.2
71.5
36.2
23.1
1995
70.8
55.6
61.5
55.1
87.6
72.2
36.5
23.0
1996
70.9
56.0
60.1
55.2
87.9
72.8
37.0
23.1
1997
71.3
56.8
60.1
55.9
88.4
73.5
37.7
23.8
1998
71.6
57.1
60.8
57.2
88.8
73.6
38.0
24.4
1999
71.6
57.4
61.0
57.0
89.0
74.1
38.5
24.9
2000
71.9
57.5
61.9
57.4
89.0
74.2
39.1
25.5
2001
70.9
57.0
59.4
56.0
87.9
73.4
39.6
26.3
2002
69.7
56.3
57.1
54.3
86.6
72.3
40.3
27.5
2003
68.9
56.1
55.3
52.5
85.9
72.0
40.7
28.9
2004
69.2
56.0
55.5
52.2
86.3
71.8
41.5
29.4
2005
69.6
56.2
55.2
52.6
86.9
72.0
42.7
30.4
2006
70.1
56.6
56.2
52.3
87.3
72.5
43.5
31.4
2007
69.8
56.6
54.4
51.8
87.5
72.5
43.7
32.2
2008
68.5
56.2
52.3
50.2
86.0
72.3
44.2
32.7
2009
64.5
54.4
46.7
47.0
81.5
70.2
43.0
32.6
2010
63.7
53.6
44.9
45.1
81.0
69.3
42.8
32.9
2011
63.9
53.2
46.0
44.9
81.4
69.0
43.1
32.9
2012
64.4
53.1
46.6
45.4
82.5
69.2
43.8
33.1
2013
64.4
53.2
46.9
46.0
82.8
69.3
43.8
33.3
2014
64.9
53.5
48.2
47.1
83.6
70.0
43.9
33.4
2015
65.3
53.7
49.0
48.2
84.4
70.3
44.1
33.5
2016
65.8
54.1
50.1
48.8
85.0
71.1
44.4
33.5
2017
66.0
54.6
50.8
49.9
85.4
72.1
44.6
33.6
2018
66.3
54.9
50.6
50.3
86.2
72.8
44.7
33.7
2019
66.6
55.4
51.3
51.1
86.4
73.7
45.1
34.0
2020
62.4
51.5
46.4
45.3
81.8
69.6
42.2
31.5
2021
63.9
53.2
50.6
49.7
83.6
71.7
42.3
31.9
2022
65.5
54.7
51.5
50.6
85.9
74.0
43.5
32.7
2023
65.5
55.4
51.6
52.0
86.3
75.1
43.0
32.8
Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.
The employment–population ratio of women ages 25 to 54 rose until reaching 74.2 percent in 2000 before gradually declining through 2011, which is when the series began to trend up again. This series reached a high of 75.1 percent in 2023, 0.9 percentage points higher than its previous high recorded in 2000.
In contrast, the employment–population ratio for men peaked in 1951 at 84.0 percent and trended down to a series low of 62.4 percent in 2020. Prior to the pandemic, the series low for men was 63.7 percent in 2010.
The ratio for men ages 25 to 54 hit a low of 81.0 percent in 2010 and trended back up until the onset of the pandemic. In 2023, it was 86.3 percent, in line with the 2019 prepandemic figure of 86.4 percent.
How does telework differ between women and men?
The telework rate represents the number of people who teleworked or worked at home for pay as a percentage of people who were working during the survey reference week (the week survey questions about work refer to). In 2023, the telework rate for women (21.7 percent) was higher than the rate for men (18.0 percent). The telework rate for women ages 25 to 54 was 24.5 percent in 2023, whereas the rate for men ages 25 to 54 was 19.8 percent. (See chart 3a.)
Chart 3. Percent of employed who teleworked some or all hours by sex and age, 2023 annual averages
Group
Some hours
All hours
Men total
9.1
9.0
Men, 16 to 24 years
3.1
2.5
Men, 25 to 54 years
10.1
9.7
Men, 25 to 34 years
9.2
9.2
Men, 35 to 44 years
10.8
10.4
Men, 45 to 54 years
10.3
9.7
Men, 55 years and over
9.3
10.1
Women total
9.9
11.8
Women, 16 to 24 years
3.6
3.6
Women, 25 to 54 years
11.3
13.2
Women, 25 to 34 years
11.4
12.5
Women, 35 to 44 years
11.6
14.3
Women, 45 to 54 years
11
12.8
Women, 55 years and over
9.4
13
Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.
Within the 25 to 54 age group, women ages 25 to 34 had a telework rate of 23.9 percent compared with 18.4 percent for men ages 25 to 34. (Women ages 25 to 34 were the most likely to have children under age 6.) The telework rate for women ages 35 to 44 was 25.8 percent and the rate for men was 21.2 percent. The rate for women ages 45 to 54 was 23.7 percent and the rate for their male counterparts was 20.0 percent. (See chart 3b.)
Women ages 25 to 54 were more likely to telework all of their work hours than were their male counterparts in 2023 (13.2 percent versus 9.7 percent). (See chart 3a.)
Telework hours per week
The CPS has data on the hours people teleworked during the survey reference week. In 2023, among those who teleworked, women (28.4 hours) and men (28.9 hours) spent a similar number of hours working at home. However, men ages 25 to 54 teleworked more hours than women in this age group (29.5 hours versus 28.8 hours). (See chart 4a.)
Chart 4. Average hours teleworked and percent of all hours teleworked by sex and age, 2023 annual averages
Group
Average hours teleworked
Telework hours as a percent of all hours
Men, total
28.9
70.0
Women, total
28.4
73.6
Men, 16 to 24
24.3
65.3
Women, 16 to 24
25.1
70.0
Men, 25 to 54
29.5
70.1
Men, 25 to 34
29.3
71.2
Men, 35 to 44
29.5
69.6
Men, 45 to 54
29.8
69.5
Women, 25 to 54
28.8
73.4
Women, 25 to 34
28.4
72.6
Women, 35 to 44
29.1
74.4
Women, 45 to 54
28.9
73.1
Men, 55 years and older
27.8
70.4
Women, 55 years and older
27.8
74.9
Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.
Although telework hours were similar for men and women, women teleworked a larger share of their total work hours than men: 73.6 percent versus 70.0 percent. (See chart 4b.)
On average, women worked fewer hours per week than men—in part, because they are more likely to work part time—so their telework hours accounted for a larger share of their overall work hours. Among workers ages 25 to 54, women teleworked 73.4 percent of their work hours, compared with men who teleworked 70.1 percent of their work hours.
Telework rates by occupation
Among the major occupation groups, management, professional, and related occupations had the highest telework rate at 33.7 percent in 2023. Sales and office occupations had the second highest rate at 21.0 percent. Women were more likely to work in these occupation groups than men. In 2023, 47.9 percent of women worked in management, professional, and related occupations and 24.6 percent worked in sales and office occupations. By comparison, 39.6 percent of men worked in management, professional, and related occupations and 14.0 percent worked in sales and office occupations. (See chart 5.)
Chart 5. Telework rates by occupation and percent distribution of men and women employed by occupation, 2023 annual averages
Occupation
Men
Women
Telework rate
Management, professional, and related occupations
39.6
48.2
33.7
Sales and office occupations
14.0
24.3
21.0
Service occupations
13.1
19.8
3.8
Production, transportation, and material moving occupations
17.5
6.6
2.2
Natural resources, construction, and maintenance occupations
15.8
1.1
2.1
Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.
Additionally, women were much less likely to work in the occupation groups with the lowest telework rates. The natural resources, construction, and maintenance occupations had a telework rate of 2.1 percent, and 1.1 percent of women worked in this occupation group compared with 15.8 percent of men. The production, transportation, and material moving occupations had a telework rate of 2.2 percent, and 6.6 percent of women worked in this occupation group compared with 17.5 percent of men.
How does part-time work differ between women and men?
To determine if someone works full or part time, the CPS includes questions about the number of hours employed people work. All employed people—including those who were at work during the survey reference week and those who were absent from work during the entire survey reference week—are asked about their usual hours of work. Full-time workers are those who usually work 35 or more hours per week, and part-time workers are those who usually work less than 35 hours per week. Employed people are also asked the number of hours they actually worked during the survey reference week. The number of hours one actually worked can differ from their usual work hours. We will look at those who usually work part time and those who actually worked part-time hours during the survey reference week; that is, they worked less than 35 hours.
Reasons for part-time work
In 2023, there were 34.9 million people who were at work part time, and they accounted for 22 percent of all workers. Women made up a disproportionately large share of those at work part time: women accounted for 47 percent of all workers in 2023 and 59 percent of those at work part time. Women also accounted for 47 percent of all workers ages 25 to 54, but they made up an even larger share of those at work part time in this age group—61 percent. (See tables 1 and 2.)
Table 1. Employed people by sex and part-time status and reason, 2023 annual averages (numbers in thousands)
Part-time status and reason
Total
Men
Women
Women as percent of total
Total employed
161,037
85,500
75,537
47
At work part time
34,869
14,407
20,462
59
Part time for noneconomic reasons
30,800
12,208
18,591
60
Usually full time
8,945
4,461
4,484
50
Usually part time
21,855
7,747
14,108
65
Part time for economic reasons
4,069
2,198
1,871
46
Total employed, ages 25 to 54
103,223
55,163
48,060
47
At work part time
16,717
6,528
10,189
61
Part time for noneconomic reasons
14,299
5,196
9,105
64
Usually full time
6,015
2,969
3,048
51
Usually part time
8,284
2,227
6,057
73
Part time for economic reasons
2,417
1,334
1,084
45
Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.
The overwhelming majority (88 percent) of those working part time did so for noneconomic reasons in 2023. (See table 2.) Noneconomic reasons are reasons that relate more to the worker themselves—like going to school, taking care of family obligations, or a person’s own injury or illness, among other reasons—whereas economic reasons relate more to business conditions. Among those at work part time, women were more likely to work part time for noneconomic reasons than men: 91 percent versus 85 percent in 2023.
Among all workers ages 25 to 54 at work part time, 86 percent were working part time for noneconomic reasons. Women in this age group were also more likely to have worked part time for noneconomic reasons than men: 89 percent versus 80 percent.
Table 2. Percent at work part time by usual status, reason, and sex, 2023 annual averages
Part-time status and reason
Total
Men
Women
At work part time
100
100
100
Part time for noneconomic reasons
88
85
91
Usually full time
26
31
22
Usually part time
63
54
69
Part time for economic reasons
12
15
9
At work part time, ages 25 to 54
100
100
100
Part time for noneconomic reasons
86
80
89
Usually full time
36
45
30
Usually part time
50
34
59
Part time for economic reasons
14
20
11
Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.
Among those who were at work part time for noneconomic reasons, the majority usually work part time (that is they usually work less than 35 hours per week). In 2023, among those who were at work part time for noneconomic reasons, 71 percent usually worked part time and 29 percent usually worked full time. (See table 2a.) Again, this likelihood differs between men and women. For women at work part time for noneconomic reasons, 76 percent usually worked part time, compared with 63 percent of men. Among women ages 25 to 54 at work part time for noneconomic reasons, 67 percent usually worked part time. By comparison, among men ages 25 to 54 who were at work part time for noneconomic reasons, 43 percent usually worked part time.
Table 2a. Percent of people at work part time for noneconomic reasons by part-time status and sex, 2023 annual averages
Part-time status
Total
Men
Women
Total part time for noneconomic reasons
100
100
100
Usually full time
29
37
24
Usually part time
71
63
76
Total part time for noneconomic reasons, ages 25 to 54
100
100
100
Usually full time
42
57
33
Usually part time
58
43
67
Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.
So, what are the noneconomic reasons people provided for working part time? In 2023, 20 percent were attending school or training and another 20 percent worked part time because of childcare problems or other family or personal obligations—most people citing these reasons usually worked part time. (See table 3.) People taking vacation accounted for 14 percent of those at work part time, but unlike those attending school or tending to family and personal obligations, all of those working part time due to vacation usually work full time. Another 14 percent of those working less than 35 hours per week considered their arrangement full time. These reasons combined accounted for about two-thirds of all people at work part time for noneconomic reasons in 2023.
Table 3. Percent of people at work part time for noneconomic reasons by reason, usual full- or part-time status, and sex, 2023 annual averages
Part-time status and reason
Total
Total, ages 25 to 54
Men
Men, ages 25 to 54
Women
Women, ages 25 to 54
Total
100
100
100
100
100
100
Childcare problems
4
7
1
2
6
11
Other family/personal obligations
16
22
8
11
21
28
Health/medical limitations
4
4
4
5
4
3
School/training
20
5
21
6
19
5
Retired/Social Security limit on earnings
9
1
12
1
8
1
Vacation/personal day
14
20
18
28
11
15
Own illness/injury/medical appointment
7
9
8
12
6
8
Holiday, legal or religious
3
5
4
6
3
4
Labor dispute
0
0
0
0
0
0
Weather-related
1
1
20
3
0
0
Civil or military duty
0
0
0
0
0
0
Full-time workweek less than 35 hours
14
15
13
15
15
16
Gave economic reason but not available to work full time
Gave economic reason but not available to work full time
1
1
1
1
1
1
Other reasons
10
11
11
17
9
9
[1] Indicates not a valid response for the group or no response in the category.
Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.
Women and men work part time for different reasons. Women were most likely to be at work part time because of childcare problems or other family or personal obligations (27 percent), while men were much less likely to work part time for these reasons (9 percent). Men were most likely to work part time for noneconomic reasons to attend school or training (21 percent); a similar share of women were working part time for this reason (19 percent).
These differences were more pronounced for those who usually work part time. Among women who usually work part time, 32 percent were doing so because of childcare problems or other family and personal obligations, 24 percent did so to attend school or training, and 10 percent were retired. Among men who usually work part time for noneconomic reasons, 10 percent did so because of childcare problems or other family or personal obligations, 32 percent were attending school or training, and 19 percent were retired.
Among workers ages 25 to 54 who usually work part time, the differences between women and men were also more pronounced. In 2023, 54 percent of women were working part time because of childcare problems or other family and personal obligations compared with 19 percent of men.
Data from the American Time Use Survey (ATUS) show that, in 2023, women ages 25 to 54 who worked part time spent more time on household activities (2.74 hours per day) than men who worked part time (1.36 hours per day) and more than men and women who worked full time (1.31 hours per day for men and 1.74 hours per day for women). (See chart 6.)
Chart 7. Average hours per day employed people ages 25 to 54 spend doing selected activities, by sex and full- or part-time status, 2022–23 pooled annual averages
Activity
Full time
Part time
Household activities (men)
1.31
1.36
Household activities (women)
1.74
2.74
Caring for and helping household members (men)
0.6
0.33
Caring for and helping household members (women)
0.78
1.47
Secondary childcare (men)
1.92
1.87
Secondary childcare (women)
1.98
3.51
Working and work-related activities (men)
6.36
3.69
Working and work-related activities (women)
5.78
2.98
Leisure and sports (men)
4.2
5.87
Leisure and sports (women)
3.54
3.93
Purchasing goods and services (men)
0.52
0.63
Purchasing goods and services (women)
0.65
0.76
Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.
Women who worked part time also spent more time caring for and helping household members (1.47 hours per day) than men who worked part time (0.33 hours per day) and men and women who worked full time (0.60 hours per day for men and 0.78 hours per day for women).
Likewise, women who worked part time spent more time in secondary childcare (3.51 hours per day)—that is, they spent time with a child under age 13 who was in their care while doing another activity—than men who worked part time (1.87 hours per day) and those who worked full time (1.92 hours per day for men and 1.98 hours per day for women). Out of these four groups, women who worked part time were the most likely to live with a child under age 13.
Men who worked part time spent more time engaged in leisure and sports (5.87 hours per day) than men who worked full time (4.20 hours per day) and more than women regardless of their work status (3.54 hours per day for full-time workers and 3.93 hours per day for part-time workers). (See chart 6.)
Summary
In 2023, women ages 25 to 54 were more likely to participate in the labor force (77.4 percent) than at any previous time in the history of the survey. They were also more likely to be employed than in prior years (75.1 percent). Meanwhile labor force participation for men in this age group was highest in the 1950s and generally trended down to 89.1 percent in 2023. In 2023, 86.3 percent of men ages 25 to 54 were employed.
Women and men ages 25 to 54 both took advantage of workplace flexibilities like telework and part-time work, but at different rates and for different reasons. A larger share of women teleworked than men, but among those who did, men worked from home more hours per week on average than women who teleworked. Nevertheless, women teleworked a larger share of their work hours than men—this may reflect the higher likelihood of part-time work among women.
In general, women were more likely to be at work part time than men, and they were much more likely to usually work part time than men. The reasons men and women report for working part time differ. These differences are driven by those who usually work part time; reasons for working part time were similar for women and men who usually work full time. Among those who usually work part time, women were most likely to do so because of childcare problems or other family and personal obligations, and men were most likely to do so to attend school or training programs. American Time Use data show that women ages 25 to 54 who worked part time spent more time (on average per day) attending to household activities, caring for household members, and in secondary childcare than women who worked full time and more than employed men regardless of whether they worked full or part time.
Statistical Tables
To access data highlighted in this report in table format, you may visit the 2023 Annual Average tables page.
Technical Notes
The estimates in this report were obtained from two surveys: The Current Population Survey (CPS) and the American Time Use Survey (ATUS). The CPS is a nationally representative monthly sample survey of approximately 60,000 eligible households that provides a wide range of information on the labor force, employment, and unemployment. The survey is conducted for the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) by the U.S. Census Bureau, using a scientifically selected national sample with coverage in all 50 states and the District of Columbia. CPS estimates here are annual averages.
The ATUS is also conducted by the U.S. Census Bureau for BLS and is a continuous survey about how individuals age 15 and older spend their time. ATUS sample households are chosen from the households that completed their eighth (final) interview for the CPS. ATUS sample households are selected to ensure that estimates will be nationally representative. ATUS estimates presented here are averages for the 2-year period of 2022–23.
One individual age 15 or over is randomly chosen from each sampled household in the ATUS. This person is interviewed by telephone once about his or her activities on the day before the interview—the "diary day." People selected for the ATUS are preassigned a day of the week about which to report.
In the time diary portion of the ATUS interview, survey respondents sequentially report activities they did between 4 a.m. on the day before the interview until 4 a.m. on the day of the interview. For each activity, respondents are asked how long the activity lasted. For activities other than personal care activities (such as sleeping and grooming), interviewers also ask respondents where they were and who was in the room with them (if at home) or who accompanied them (if away from home). If respondents report doing more than one activity at a time, they are asked to identify which one was the "main" (primary) activity. If none can be identified, then the interviewer records the first activity mentioned. After completing the time diary, interviewers ask respondents additional questions to clearly identify work, volunteering, eldercare, and secondary childcare activities.
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Concepts and definitions
Employment concepts
The civilian labor force includes all people classified as employed or unemployed.
The civilian labor force participation rate represents the number of people in the civilian labor force as a percentage of the civilian noninstitutional population.
The civilian noninstitutional population is made up of people 16 years of age and older residing in any of the 50 states or the District of Columbia who are not confined to institutions, such as nursing homes and prisons, and who are not on active duty in the Armed Forces.
The employed are people who, during the survey reference week (which is generally the week including the 12th day of the month in CPS and 7 days prior to the interview in ATUS), (a) did any work at all as paid employees, (b) worked in their own business or profession or on their own farm, or (c) worked 15 or more hours as unpaid workers in a family member’s business. People who were temporarily absent from their jobs or business because of illness, vacation, a labor dispute, or another reason are also counted as employed.
The employment-population ratio represents the number of employed people as a percentage of the population.
Hours at work reflects the number of hours actually worked (at all jobs) during the survey reference week, which in CPS is generally the week including the 12th day of the month. For example, people who normally work 40 hours a week but were off for 8 hours during the Labor Day holiday would be reported as working 32 hours, even if they were paid for the holiday. (See related information on part-time work.)
Information on occupation applies to the job held during the reference week. People with two or more jobs are classified into the occupation in which they worked the greatest number of hours. The occupation classification of CPS data is based on the 2018 Census occupational classification system, which is derived from the 2018 Standard Occupation Classification (SOC). For more information, see Occupational and Industry classifications used in the CPS.
Telework concepts
People who telework are those who indicated they teleworked or worked at home for pay at any time during the survey reference week, which in CPS is generally the calendar week that contains the 12th day of the month. Information about telework is collected from employed people who were “at work” during the survey reference week. The term "at work" does not refer to where people work, but rather that people performed some work for pay or profit. Telework data are not collected from people who were employed but not at work due to vacation, illness, or other reasons.
People who teleworked or worked at home for pay during the survey reference week are asked how many of the total hours they worked during the week were hours they teleworked or worked at home for pay, and data are presented as the average hours teleworked.
The telework rate is the number of people who telework or work at home for pay as a percentage of those who were employed and at work during the survey reference week. The term "at work" does not refer to where people work, but rather that people performed some work for pay or profit during the survey reference week.
Part-time work concepts
Usual full- or part-time status is based on the number of hours people usually work per week, regardless of the number of hours actually worked in the reference week. Full-time workers are those who usually work 35 or more hours per week (at all jobs combined). Part-time workers are those who usually work less than 35 hours per week (at all jobs).
At work part time includes employed people who worked 1 to 34 hours during the survey reference week regardless of whether they usually work full or part time.
Part time for economic reasons includes employed people who want and are available to work 35 or more hours per week, and who are working part time due to poor economic conditions or an inability to find full time work. Economic reasons for working part time include the following:
Slack work or business conditions
Seasonal work
Job started or ended during week
Could only find part-time work
Part time for noneconomic reasons includes employed people who either do not want or are not available to work 35 or more hours per week or who are working part time for personal reasons. Noneconomic reasons include the following:
Childcare problems—worked less than 35 hours for reasons related specifically to affordable, available, or adequate childcare
Other family and/or personal obligations—all other family or home-related reasons, which may include staying home with a sick child, doing housework, or chaperoning a school field trip
Health and/or medical limitations—person's own illness, injury, or disability prevented them from working full time
School and/or training—worked less than 35 hours to attend any type of school or training program
Retired and/or Social Security earnings limit—worked less than 35 hours because they are retired or because they cannot work more hours without losing Social Security benefits
Vacation/personal day—worked part time because they took vacation or personal days for part of the reference week
A person is only classified as at work part time because of vacation if they usually work 35 hours or more and their time off reduced their hours for the week to less than 35 hours; while a person who usually works part time may take vacation hours, it is not the reason they usually work part time.
Own illness, injury, or medical appointment—worked part time in the reference week because of his/her own illness, injury, or appointment at a doctor's or dentist's office
Holiday, legal, or religious—worked less than 35 hours because they took time off for a holiday even if the actual holiday is not during the reference week
Labor dispute—worked less than 35 hours because of a labor dispute at their own place of employment
Weather-related—worked part time due to adverse weather conditions
Civil or military duty—worked part time because of jury duty, Armed Forces reserve duty, National Guard duty, or a similar obligation
Full-time workweek less than 35 hours—when less than 35 hours is considered to be a full-time workweek
Gave economic reason but not available to work full time—reported that they want to work at least 35 hours a week but that they are unavailable to work 35 or more hours a week
Other reasons—any other reasons reported
Activity concepts
Average hours per day is the average number of hours spent in a 24-hour day (between 4 a.m. on the diary day and 4 a.m. on the interview day) doing a specified activity. The average number of hours per day is computed using all responses from a given sample of the population, including those of respondents who did not do a particular activity on their diary day. These estimates reflect how many people engaged in an activity and the amount of time they spent doing it.
Caring for and helping household members includes time spent doing activities to care for or help any child (under age 18) or adult in the household, when done as one’s primary activity. All care and help provided to household members, regardless of one’s relationship to the respondent or the physical or mental health status of the person being helped, is classified here. Travel and waiting time related to caring for and helping household members is also included in this category.
The diary day is the day about which the ATUS respondent reports. For example, the diary day of a respondent interviewed on Tuesday is the preceding Monday.
Household activities are activities done by individuals to maintain their households. These include housework; cooking; lawn and garden care; pet care; vehicle maintenance and repair; home maintenance, repair, decoration, and renovation; and household management and organizational activities (such as filling out paperwork or planning a party), when done as one’s primary activity. Food preparation, whether or not reported as done specifically for another household member, is always classified as a household activity unless it is done as a volunteer, work, or income-generating activity. For example, "making breakfast for my son" is coded as a household activity, not as childcare. Travel and waiting time related to household activities is also included in this category.
Leisure and sports includes time spent in sports, exercise, and recreation; socializing and communicating; watching television; reading; relaxing or thinking; playing computer, board, or card games; using a computer or the internet for personal interest; playing or listening to music; and other activities, such as attending arts, cultural, and entertainment events. Travel and waiting time related to leisure and sports activities is also included here. The category refers to times when these activities were done as one’s primary activity.
Purchasing goods and services includes time spent purchasing consumer goods, professional and personal care services, household services, and government services. Travel and waiting time related to purchasing goods and services is also included here. The category refers to times when these activities were done as one’s primary activity.
Consumer purchases include most purchases and rentals of consumer goods, regardless of the mode or place of purchase or rental (in person, online, via telephone, at home, or in a store).
Professional services include childcare, financial services and banking, legal services, medical and adult care services, real estate services, and veterinary services. Personal care services include day spas, hair salons and barbershops, nail salons, and tanning salons.
Household services include housecleaning; cooking; lawn care and landscaping; pet care; tailoring, laundering, and dry cleaning; vehicle maintenance and repairs; and home repairs, maintenance, and construction.
Government services include things like applying for food assistance and purchasing government-required licenses or paying fines or fees.
Secondary childcare is care for children under age 13 that is done while doing something else as a primary activity, such as cooking dinner. Secondary childcare estimates are derived by summing the durations of activities during which respondents had at least one child under age 13 in their care while doing other things. The time individuals spend providing secondary childcare to household children is further restricted to the time between when the first child under the age of 13 in the household woke up and when the last household child under 13 went to bed. It is also restricted to times the respondent was awake. If respondents report providing both primary and secondary care at the same time, the time is attributed to primary care only.
Working and work-related activities includes time spent working, doing activities as part of one's job, engaging in income-generating activities not as part of one's job, and job search activities. "Working" includes hours spent doing the specific tasks required of one's main or other job, regardless of location or time of day. "Work-related activities" include activities that are not obviously work but are done as part of one's job, such as having a business lunch and playing golf with clients. "Other income-generating activities" are those done "on the side" or under informal arrangement and are not part of a regular job. Such activities might include selling homemade crafts, maintaining a rental property, or having a yard sale. These activities are those for which individuals are paid or will be paid. Travel and waiting time related to working and work-related activities is also included. The category refers to times when these activities were done as one’s primary activity.
Reliability of the estimates
Statistics based on the CPS and ATUS are subject to both sampling and nonsampling error. When a sample, rather than an entire population, is surveyed, there is a chance that the sample estimates may differ from the true population values they represent. There are two reasons this occurs: sampling error and nonsampling error. Sampling error occurs because samples differ by chance. The sampling error variability is measured by the standard error of the estimate. There is about a 90-percent chance, or level of confidence, that an estimate based on a sample will differ by no more than 1.6 standard errors from the true population value because of sampling error. BLS analyses are generally conducted at the 90-percent level of confidence.
All other types of error are referred to as nonsampling error. Nonsampling error can occur for many reasons, including the failure to sample a segment of the population, inability to obtain information for all respondents in the sample, inability or unwillingness of respondents to provide correct information, and errors made in the collection or processing of data. For more information on sampling and non-sampling errors in the CPS and estimating standard errors, see Reliability of estimates from the CPS.
United States Department of Labor
