About the Author

Emy Sok is an economist in the Office of Employment and Unemployment Statistics, U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.

Sean Smith
Smith.Sean@bls.gov

Sean Smith was an economist in the Office of Employment and Unemployment Statistics, U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.

John Evans
Evans.John@bls.gov

John Evans is an economist in the Office of Employment and Unemployment Statistics, U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.

Article Citations

Crossref 0

top Back to Top

Article

September 2025

Unemployment rate increases in the first half of 2024, before leveling off, while the labor force participation rate holds fairly steady

In 2024, the U.S. unemployment rate ended the year at 4.2 percent in the fourth quarter, up from 3.8 percent a year earlier. The employment–population ratio edged down to 59.9 percent, while the labor force participation rate, at 62.5 percent, was little changed over the year. The telework rate, at 23.4 percent, continued to trend up in 2024.

In the fourth quarter of 2024, the U.S. unemployment rate averaged 4.2 percent, higher than the rate of 3.8 percent in the fourth quarter of 2023.^¹ The number of unemployed people rose to 7.0 million from 6.4 million at the end of 2023.^² Total employment, as measured by the Current Population Survey (CPS), increased in 2024 (after taking into account the latest information on population totals from the U.S. Census Bureau).^³ The employment–population ratio, at 59.9 percent in the fourth quarter of 2024, was down slightly over the year, while the labor force participation rate, at 62.5 percent, changed little. (See appendix A for more information about the CPS. See appendix B for more information on the annual adjustments to CPS population controls, including a discussion of new population and labor force estimates introduced in January 2025.)

This article highlights a broad range of economic indicators from the CPS, providing a view of labor market performance in 2024, both overall and for various demographic groups. Updates on trends in usual weekly earnings, labor force flows, and the number of people who were self-employed are included, along with a summary of recent changes in the employment situations of veterans, people with a disability, and the foreign born. The article also presents data on the number of people who teleworked or worked at home for pay in 2024.

The unemployment rate rose in the first half of 2024

In the fourth quarter of 2024, the total number of people who were unemployed was 7.0 million and the unemployment rate was 4.2 percent, up from 6.4 million and 3.8 percent, respectively, a year earlier. Most of the increase in both the number of unemployed and the jobless rate occurred in the first part of the year, continuing trends for these measures that began in the second half of 2023. In the second half of the year, both the unemployment level and rate remained steady. Despite the increase in unemployment in 2024, the jobless rate remained relatively low by historical standards.

Much of the increase in the number of unemployed in 2024 occurred among women, as is reflected in their unemployment rate, which increased from 3.5 percent to 4.1 percent over the year. The number of unemployed men increased more modestly in 2024, as their jobless rate edged up by 0.2 percentage points to 4.2 percent. (See table 1 and chart 1.)

Table 1. Employment status of the civilian noninstitutional population 16 years and older by sex, race, and Hispanic or Latino ethnicity, quarterly averages, in thousands, seasonally adjusted, 2023–24
Characteristic	Fourth quarter, 2023	First quarter, 2024	Second quarter, 2024	Third quarter, 2024	Fourth quarter, 2024
Total, 16 years and older
Civilian labor force	167,756	167,579	167,930	168,505	168,426
Participation rate (percent)	62.6	62.6	62.6	62.7	62.5
Employed	161,407	161,209	161,271	161,482	161,433
Employment–population ratio	60.3	60.2	60.1	60.1	59.9
Unemployed	6,350	6,369	6,659	7,023	6,993
Unemployment rate (percent)	3.8	3.8	4.0	4.2	4.2
Men, 16 years and older
Civilian labor force	89,191	88,622	88,855	89,157	89,275
Participation rate (percent)	68.1	67.9	67.9	68.0	68.0
Employed	85,617	85,195	85,219	85,336	85,510
Employment–population ratio	65.4	65.3	65.2	65.1	65.1
Unemployed	3,574	3,427	3,636	3,820	3,764
Unemployment rate (percent)	4.0	3.9	4.1	4.3	4.2
Women, 16 years and older
Civilian labor force	78,565	78,957	79,075	79,348	79,152
Participation rate (percent)	57.4	57.6	57.5	57.6	57.3
Employed	75,790	76,015	76,052	76,146	75,923
Employment–population ratio	55.4	55.4	55.3	55.3	55.0
Unemployed	2,776	2,942	3,023	3,202	3,228
Unemployment rate (percent)	3.5	3.7	3.8	4.0	4.1
White
Civilian labor force	127,552	127,233	127,561	127,971	127,761
Participation rate (percent)	62.2	62.2	62.2	62.4	62.2
Employed	123,193	122,891	123,086	123,167	122,990
Employment–population ratio	60.1	60.0	60.1	60.0	59.8
Unemployed	4,358	4,343	4,475	4,804	4,771
Unemployment rate (percent)	3.4	3.4	3.5	3.8	3.7
Black or African American
Civilian labor force	22,054	22,133	21,994	22,045	22,003
Participation rate (percent)	63.3	63.5	62.9	62.9	62.6
Employed	20,818	20,853	20,670	20,715	20,672
Employment–population ratio	59.8	59.8	59.1	59.1	58.8
Unemployed	1,236	1,280	1,324	1,330	1,331
Unemployment rate (percent)	5.6	5.8	6.0	6.0	6.0
Asian
Civilian labor force	11,479	11,499	11,730	11,736	11,758
Participation rate (percent)	64.7	64.5	65.3	65.4	64.7
Employed	11,108	11,157	11,336	11,271	11,318
Employment–population ratio	62.6	62.6	63.1	62.8	62.3
Unemployed	371	342	394	465	440
Unemployment rate (percent)	3.2	3.0	3.4	4.0	3.7
Hispanic or Latino ethnicity
Civilian labor force	32,108	32,444	32,854	33,111	33,152
Participation rate (percent)	66.9	66.9	67.4	67.5	67.1
Employed	30,576	30,870	31,238	31,363	31,438
Employment–population ratio	63.7	63.7	64.1	63.9	63.7
Unemployed	1,532	1,574	1,616	1,747	1,715
Unemployment rate (percent)	4.8	4.8	4.9	5.3	5.2
Note: Estimates for the above race groups (White, Black or African American, and Asian) do not sum to totals because data are not presented for all races. Persons whose ethnicity is identified as Hispanic or Latino may be of any race. Updated population controls are introduced annually with the release of January data. Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey.

Chart 1. Unemployment rate for people 16 years and older, quarterly averages, seasonally adjusted, in percent, 1968–2024
Quarter	Unemployment rate
Q1 1968	3.7
Q2 1968	3.5
Q3 1968	3.5
Q4 1968	3.4
Q1 1969	3.4
Q2 1969	3.4
Q3 1969	3.6
Q4 1969	3.6
Q1 1970	4.2
Q2 1970	4.8
Q3 1970	5.2
Q4 1970	5.8
Q1 1971	5.9
Q2 1971	5.9
Q3 1971	6.0
Q4 1971	6.0
Q1 1972	5.8
Q2 1972	5.7
Q3 1972	5.6
Q4 1972	5.3
Q1 1973	5.0
Q2 1973	4.9
Q3 1973	4.8
Q4 1973	4.8
Q1 1974	5.1
Q2 1974	5.2
Q3 1974	5.6
Q4 1974	6.6
Q1 1975	8.2
Q2 1975	8.9
Q3 1975	8.5
Q4 1975	8.3
Q1 1976	7.7
Q2 1976	7.6
Q3 1976	7.7
Q4 1976	7.8
Q1 1977	7.5
Q2 1977	7.1
Q3 1977	6.9
Q4 1977	6.6
Q1 1978	6.3
Q2 1978	6.0
Q3 1978	6.0
Q4 1978	5.9
Q1 1979	5.9
Q2 1979	5.7
Q3 1979	5.9
Q4 1979	5.9
Q1 1980	6.3
Q2 1980	7.3
Q3 1980	7.7
Q4 1980	7.4
Q1 1981	7.4
Q2 1981	7.4
Q3 1981	7.4
Q4 1981	8.2
Q1 1982	8.8
Q2 1982	9.4
Q3 1982	9.9
Q4 1982	10.7
Q1 1983	10.4
Q2 1983	10.1
Q3 1983	9.4
Q4 1983	8.5
Q1 1984	7.9
Q2 1984	7.5
Q3 1984	7.4
Q4 1984	7.3
Q1 1985	7.3
Q2 1985	7.3
Q3 1985	7.2
Q4 1985	7.0
Q1 1986	7.0
Q2 1986	7.2
Q3 1986	7.0
Q4 1986	6.8
Q1 1987	6.6
Q2 1987	6.3
Q3 1987	6.0
Q4 1987	5.9
Q1 1988	5.7
Q2 1988	5.5
Q3 1988	5.5
Q4 1988	5.3
Q1 1989	5.2
Q2 1989	5.2
Q3 1989	5.3
Q4 1989	5.4
Q1 1990	5.3
Q2 1990	5.3
Q3 1990	5.7
Q4 1990	6.1
Q1 1991	6.6
Q2 1991	6.8
Q3 1991	6.9
Q4 1991	7.1
Q1 1992	7.4
Q2 1992	7.6
Q3 1992	7.6
Q4 1992	7.4
Q1 1993	7.2
Q2 1993	7.1
Q3 1993	6.8
Q4 1993	6.6
Q1 1994	6.6
Q2 1994	6.2
Q3 1994	6.0
Q4 1994	5.6
Q1 1995	5.5
Q2 1995	5.7
Q3 1995	5.7
Q4 1995	5.6
Q1 1996	5.5
Q2 1996	5.5
Q3 1996	5.3
Q4 1996	5.3
Q1 1997	5.2
Q2 1997	5.0
Q3 1997	4.9
Q4 1997	4.7
Q1 1998	4.6
Q2 1998	4.4
Q3 1998	4.5
Q4 1998	4.4
Q1 1999	4.3
Q2 1999	4.3
Q3 1999	4.2
Q4 1999	4.1
Q1 2000	4.0
Q2 2000	3.9
Q3 2000	4.0
Q4 2000	3.9
Q1 2001	4.2
Q2 2001	4.4
Q3 2001	4.8
Q4 2001	5.5
Q1 2002	5.7
Q2 2002	5.8
Q3 2002	5.7
Q4 2002	5.8
Q1 2003	5.9
Q2 2003	6.2
Q3 2003	6.1
Q4 2003	5.8
Q1 2004	5.7
Q2 2004	5.6
Q3 2004	5.4
Q4 2004	5.4
Q1 2005	5.3
Q2 2005	5.1
Q3 2005	5.0
Q4 2005	5.0
Q1 2006	4.7
Q2 2006	4.7
Q3 2006	4.6
Q4 2006	4.5
Q1 2007	4.5
Q2 2007	4.5
Q3 2007	4.7
Q4 2007	4.8
Q1 2008	5.0
Q2 2008	5.3
Q3 2008	6.0
Q4 2008	6.9
Q1 2009	8.3
Q2 2009	9.3
Q3 2009	9.6
Q4 2009	9.9
Q1 2010	9.8
Q2 2010	9.7
Q3 2010	9.5
Q4 2010	9.5
Q1 2011	9.0
Q2 2011	9.1
Q3 2011	9.0
Q4 2011	8.7
Q1 2012	8.3
Q2 2012	8.2
Q3 2012	8.0
Q4 2012	7.8
Q1 2013	7.7
Q2 2013	7.5
Q3 2013	7.3
Q4 2013	7.0
Q1 2014	6.6
Q2 2014	6.2
Q3 2014	6.1
Q4 2014	5.7
Q1 2015	5.5
Q2 2015	5.4
Q3 2015	5.1
Q4 2015	5.0
Q1 2016	4.9
Q2 2016	4.9
Q3 2016	4.9
Q4 2016	4.8
Q1 2017	4.6
Q2 2017	4.4
Q3 2017	4.3
Q4 2017	4.2
Q1 2018	4.0
Q2 2018	3.9
Q3 2018	3.8
Q4 2018	3.8
Q1 2019	3.8
Q2 2019	3.6
Q3 2019	3.6
Q4 2019	3.6
Q1 2020	3.8
Q2 2020	13.0
Q3 2020	8.8
Q4 2020	6.7
Q1 2021	6.2
Q2 2021	5.9
Q3 2021	5.1
Q4 2021	4.2
Q1 2022	3.8
Q2 2022	3.7
Q3 2022	3.6
Q4 2022	3.6
Q1 2023	3.5
Q2 2023	3.6
Q3 2023	3.7
Q4 2023	3.8
Q1 2024	3.8
Q2 2024	4.0
Q3 2024	4.2
Q4 2024	4.2
Note: Shaded regions represent recessions as designated by the National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER). Turning points are quarterly. Date ranges are listed in quarters. For example, Q1 1968 is the first quarter of 1968. Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey.

Unemployment rates increased over the year for the major race and ethnicity groups

Unemployment rates increased for all the major race and ethnicity groups in 2024. For people who are White, the unemployment rate rose from 3.4 percent in the fourth quarter of 2023 to 3.7 percent in the fourth quarter of 2024. For people who are Black or African American, whose jobless rates have historically been considerably higher than those for White people, the unemployment rate increased from 5.6 percent in the fourth quarter of 2023 to 6.0 percent in the fourth quarter of 2024. For Asian people, the unemployment rate increased from 3.2 percent to 3.7 percent over the year. Finally, for people who are Hispanic or Latino (who may be of any race), the unemployment rate increased from 4.8 percent in the fourth quarter of 2023 to 5.2 percent in the fourth quarter of 2024. (See table 1 and chart 2.)

Chart 2. Unemployment rates, by race and Hispanic or Latino ethnicity, quarterly averages, seasonally adjusted, in percent, 1994–2024
Quarter	White	Black	Asian	Hispanic
Q1 1994	5.7	12.8	^¹	10.2
Q2 1994	5.4	11.6	^¹	10.3
Q3 1994	5.2	10.9	^¹	10.0
Q4 1994	4.9	10.7	^¹	9.2
Q1 1995	4.8	10.0	^¹	9.4
Q2 1995	5.0	10.5	^¹	9.3
Q3 1995	4.9	11.0	^¹	9.2
Q4 1995	4.9	9.9	^¹	9.4
Q1 1996	4.8	10.4	^¹	9.6
Q2 1996	4.8	10.5	^¹	9.3
Q3 1996	4.5	10.6	^¹	8.6
Q4 1996	4.6	10.6	^¹	8.0
Q1 1997	4.5	10.7	^¹	8.3
Q2 1997	4.2	10.4	^¹	7.8
Q3 1997	4.2	9.5	^¹	7.5
Q4 1997	4.0	9.7	^¹	7.3
Q1 1998	4.0	9.3	^¹	7.0
Q2 1998	3.8	8.9	^¹	7.0
Q3 1998	3.9	9.1	^¹	7.3
Q4 1998	3.9	8.3	^¹	7.3
Q1 1999	3.7	8.0	^¹	6.4
Q2 1999	3.8	7.6	^¹	6.8
Q3 1999	3.7	8.3	^¹	6.6
Q4 1999	3.5	8.1	^¹	6.1
Q1 2000	3.5	7.9	3.8	5.8
Q2 2000	3.4	7.5	3.8	5.7
Q3 2000	3.5	7.6	3.7	5.9
Q4 2000	3.4	7.3	3.1	5.6
Q1 2001	3.7	8.1	3.4	6.0
Q2 2001	3.9	8.1	3.9	6.4
Q3 2001	4.2	8.7	5.2	6.5
Q4 2001	4.9	9.8	5.3	7.4
Q1 2002	5.0	10.1	5.6	7.4
Q2 2002	5.1	10.5	6.2	7.5
Q3 2002	5.1	9.8	6.0	7.4
Q4 2002	5.1	10.6	5.7	7.9
Q1 2003	5.1	10.5	6.0	7.8
Q2 2003	5.4	11.1	6.2	8.0
Q3 2003	5.4	11.0	6.1	7.7
Q4 2003	5.1	10.6	5.6	7.2
Q1 2004	5.0	10.1	4.7	7.4
Q2 2004	5.0	10.0	4.5	6.9
Q3 2004	4.7	10.6	4.1	6.8
Q4 2004	4.6	10.7	4.4	6.7
Q1 2005	4.5	10.6	4.2	6.1
Q2 2005	4.4	10.2	3.9	6.0
Q3 2005	4.3	9.4	4.3	5.9
Q4 2005	4.3	9.7	3.5	6.1
Q1 2006	4.1	9.3	3.3	5.4
Q2 2006	4.1	9.0	3.4	5.2
Q3 2006	4.0	9.1	2.8	5.3
Q4 2006	3.9	8.4	2.8	5.0
Q1 2007	4.0	8.1	3.0	5.2
Q2 2007	4.0	8.3	3.1	5.7
Q3 2007	4.2	7.9	3.2	5.7
Q4 2007	4.3	8.7	3.7	6.0
Q1 2008	4.4	8.9	3.3	6.4
Q2 2008	4.7	9.2	3.9	7.2
Q3 2008	5.3	10.6	4.1	7.9
Q4 2008	6.3	11.7	4.6	9.0
Q1 2009	7.6	13.4	6.5	11.0
Q2 2009	8.5	14.9	7.2	11.9
Q3 2009	8.8	15.0	7.7	12.7
Q4 2009	9.1	15.9	7.7	12.7
Q1 2010	8.9	16.5	8.0	12.8
Q2 2010	8.8	15.8	7.4	12.3
Q3 2010	8.6	15.9	7.3	12.2
Q4 2010	8.7	15.8	7.3	12.7
Q1 2011	8.1	15.7	6.9	11.9
Q2 2011	8.0	16.3	6.8	11.7
Q3 2011	7.9	16.1	7.5	11.2
Q4 2011	7.7	15.2	6.9	11.2
Q1 2012	7.4	13.9	6.4	10.7
Q2 2012	7.4	13.8	5.6	10.7
Q3 2012	7.2	13.9	5.6	10.0
Q4 2012	6.9	13.8	6.0	9.8
Q1 2013	6.9	13.5	5.8	9.6
Q2 2013	6.7	13.6	4.8	9.0
Q3 2013	6.4	12.8	5.3	9.1
Q4 2013	6.1	12.4	5.0	8.7
Q1 2014	5.7	12.0	5.4	8.1
Q2 2014	5.3	11.3	5.4	7.6
Q3 2014	5.2	11.3	4.4	7.3
Q4 2014	4.9	10.7	4.7	6.6
Q1 2015	4.8	10.1	3.7	6.7
Q2 2015	4.7	9.9	4.1	6.8
Q3 2015	4.4	9.3	3.6	6.6
Q4 2015	4.4	9.0	3.9	6.3
Q1 2016	4.2	8.7	3.8	5.7
Q2 2016	4.3	8.5	3.8	5.9
Q3 2016	4.3	8.2	3.9	5.8
Q4 2016	4.3	8.3	3.1	5.7
Q1 2017	4.0	7.8	3.4	5.4
Q2 2017	3.8	7.4	3.5	5.1
Q3 2017	3.8	7.4	3.7	5.1
Q4 2017	3.6	7.3	2.9	5.0
Q1 2018	3.5	7.0	3.0	4.9
Q2 2018	3.5	6.2	2.8	4.7
Q3 2018	3.4	6.3	3.1	4.6
Q4 2018	3.4	6.4	3.1	4.5
Q1 2019	3.3	7.0	3.1	4.6
Q2 2019	3.2	6.2	2.3	4.2
Q3 2019	3.3	5.4	2.7	4.2
Q4 2019	3.2	5.7	2.7	4.2
Q1 2020	3.4	6.5	3.2	4.9
Q2 2020	12.1	16.3	14.4	17.0
Q3 2020	7.8	13.0	10.5	11.2
Q4 2020	6.0	10.4	6.8	8.9
Q1 2021	5.6	9.7	5.9	8.3
Q2 2021	5.2	9.5	5.7	7.5
Q3 2021	4.5	8.1	4.6	6.2
Q4 2021	3.6	7.0	3.9	5.1
Q1 2022	3.3	6.7	3.1	4.4
Q2 2022	3.3	6.0	2.8	4.3
Q3 2022	3.1	6.0	2.6	4.1
Q4 2022	3.2	5.7	2.7	4.1
Q1 2023	3.2	5.4	3.1	4.9
Q2 2023	3.2	5.5	3.0	4.3
Q3 2023	3.3	5.6	2.7	4.6
Q4 2023	3.4	5.6	3.2	4.8
Q1 2024	3.4	5.8	3.0	4.8
Q2 2024	3.5	6.0	3.4	4.9
Q3 2024	3.8	6.0	4.0	5.3
Q4 2024	3.7	6.0	3.7	5.2
^¹ Data for Asians are not available before 2000 and are not seasonally adjusted before 2010. Note: Shaded regions represent recessions as designated by the National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER). Turning points are quarterly. People of Hispanic or Latino ethnicity may be of any race. Date ranges are listed in quarters. For example, Q1 1994 is the first quarter of 1994. Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey.

Jobless rates across the major age groups in 2024

The unemployment rate for 16- to 24-year-olds increased in 2024. Within this age group, the jobless rate for teenagers (those ages 16 to 19), at 13.1 percent in the fourth quarter of 2024, changed little over the year. The jobless rate for young adults (those ages 20 to 24), which tends to be much lower than the rate for teenagers, rose to 7.7 percent in the fourth quarter, up by 1.0 percentage point from a year earlier. (See table 2.) Among young adults, the unemployment rate for men increased from 7.1 percent to 8.8 percent over the year, while the rate for women increased from 6.3 percent to 6.6 percent.

Table 2. Employment status of the civilian noninstitutional population 16 years and older, by age and sex, quarterly averages, in thousands, seasonally adjusted, 2023–24
Characteristic	Fourth quarter, 2023	First quarter, 2024	Second quarter, 2024	Third quarter, 2024	Fourth quarter, 2024
Total, 16 to 24 years
Civilian labor force	22,217	21,876	21,857	21,572	21,837
Participation rate (percent)	56.4	56.3	56.1	55.3	55.9
Employed	20,382	20,060	19,931	19,558	19,809
Employment–population ratio	51.7	51.6	51.2	50.1	50.7
Unemployed	1,835	1,816	1,926	2,015	2,027
Unemployment rate (percent)	8.3	8.3	8.8	9.3	9.3
Total, 16 to 19 years
Civilian labor force	6,491	6,506	6,610	6,401	6,444
Participation rate (percent)	37.6	37.1	37.6	36.3	36.5
Employed	5,703	5,730	5,807	5,527	5,600
Employment–population ratio	33.0	32.7	33.0	31.4	31.8
Unemployed	788	776	803	874	843
Unemployment rate (percent)	12.1	11.9	12.1	13.7	13.1
Total, 20 to 24 years
Civilian labor force	15,726	15,371	15,247	15,171	15,393
Participation rate (percent)	71.1	72.1	71.4	70.9	71.8
Employed	14,680	14,330	14,124	14,030	14,209
Employment–population ratio	66.4	67.2	66.1	65.5	66.2
Unemployed	1,047	1,040	1,124	1,141	1,184
Unemployment rate (percent)	6.7	6.8	7.4	7.5	7.7
Total, 25 to 54 years
Civilian labor force	106,819	107,114	107,466	107,951	107,563
Participation rate (percent)	83.3	83.4	83.6	83.9	83.5
Employed	103,372	103,615	103,853	104,129	103,724
Employment–population ratio	80.6	80.7	80.8	80.9	80.5
Unemployed	3,446	3,499	3,613	3,822	3,839
Unemployment rate (percent)	3.2	3.3	3.4	3.5	3.6
Men, 25 to 54 years
Civilian labor force	57,156	56,947	57,044	57,301	57,102
Participation rate (percent)	89.2	89.2	89.3	89.6	89.2
Employed	55,186	55,083	55,081	55,256	55,133
Employment–population ratio	86.1	86.3	86.2	86.4	86.2
Unemployed	1,970	1,863	1,964	2,044	1,969
Unemployment rate (percent)	3.4	3.3	3.4	3.6	3.4
Women, 25 to 54 years
Civilian labor force	49,662	50,167	50,421	50,651	50,461
Participation rate (percent)	77.4	77.6	78.0	78.2	77.8
Employed	48,186	48,532	48,772	48,873	48,591
Employment–population ratio	75.1	75.1	75.4	75.4	74.9
Unemployed	1,476	1,635	1,649	1,778	1,870
Unemployment rate (percent)	3.0	3.3	3.3	3.5	3.7
Total, 55 years and older
Civilian labor force	38,685	38,704	38,601	38,893	39,026
Participation rate (percent)	38.6	38.5	38.3	38.5	38.4
Employed	37,591	37,634	37,503	37,739	37,847
Employment–population ratio	37.5	37.5	37.2	37.3	37.3
Unemployed	1,093	1,070	1,098	1,154	1,179
Unemployment rate (percent)	2.8	2.8	2.8	3.0	3.0
Men, 55 years and older
Civilian labor force	20,786	20,762	20,607	20,813	21,015
Participation rate (percent)	44.3	44.1	43.6	43.8	44.1
Employed	20,173	20,162	20,015	20,155	20,352
Employment–population ratio	42.9	42.8	42.4	42.5	42.7
Unemployed	613	600	593	657	663
Unemployment rate (percent)	3.0	2.9	2.9	3.2	3.2
Women, 55 years and older
Civilian labor force	17,897	17,946	17,995	18,076	18,009
Participation rate (percent)	33.6	33.7	33.6	33.7	33.4
Employed	17,419	17,472	17,489	17,583	17,494
Employment–population ratio	32.7	32.8	32.7	32.8	32.5
Unemployed	478	475	506	493	515
Unemployment rate (percent)	2.7	2.6	2.8	2.7	2.9
Note: Updated population controls are introduced annually with the release of January data. Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey.

The unemployment rate for people ages 25 to 54 (both sexes), at 3.6 percent in the fourth quarter of 2024, was up by 0.4 percentage points over the year. However, the pattern varied by sex: The unemployment rate for men ages 25 to 54, at 3.4 percent in the fourth quarter of 2024, was unchanged over the year, while the rate for women in that age group, at 3.7 percent, increased by 0.7 percentage points. By contrast, in 2023, the unemployment rate for men increased over the year, while the jobless rate for women changed little.^⁴

The unemployment rate for workers age 55 and older was 3.0 percent in the fourth quarter of 2024, little changed from a year earlier. The jobless rates for men (3.2 percent) and women (2.9 percent) in this age group were also little changed over the year.

Jobless rates were up over the year for people with more than a high school education

Among workers age 25 and older, jobless rates are generally higher for people with less formal education, and that continued to be the case in 2024. But the unemployment rate increased over the year for those with more education and changed little or not at all for those with less education. (See chart 3.)

Chart 3. Unemployment rates for people 25 years and older, by educational attainment, seasonally adjusted, fourth quarter, in percent, 2021–24
Category	Fourth quarter of 2021	Fourth quarter of 2022	Fourth quarter of 2023	Fourth quarter of 2024
Total	3.6	2.9	3.1	3.4
Less than a high school diploma	6.0	5.2	6.1	6.1
High school graduate, no college	5.0	3.8	4.1	4.3
Some college or associate's degree	3.8	3.0	3.0	3.5
Bachelor's degree and higher	2.3	2.0	2.1	2.5
SOURCE: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey.

The jobless rate for people with less than a high school diploma—which in recent years has been 2 or 3 times higher than the rate for those with a college degree—was 6.1 percent in the fourth quarter of 2024, unchanged from a year earlier. Similarly, for those with a high school diploma only (no college), the jobless rate was 4.3 percent in the fourth quarter of 2024, little changed from the previous year. By contrast, the unemployment rate for people with some college or an associate’s degree increased by 0.5 percentage points over the year, to 3.5 percent, and the jobless rate for people with a bachelor’s degree and higher—a group that tends to have relatively low unemployment rates—rose by 0.4 percentage points in 2024, to 2.5 percent. (See table 3.)

Table 3. Employment status of the civilian noninstitutional population 25 years and older, by educational attainment, quarterly averages, in thousands, seasonally adjusted, 2023–24
Characteristic	Fourth quarter, 2023	First quarter, 2024	Second quarter, 2024	Third quarter, 2024	Fourth quarter, 2024
Less than a high school diploma
Civilian labor force	9,405	9,138	9,056	9,298	9,118
Participation rate (percent)	47.9	47.3	46.6	48.2	47.7
Employed	8,835	8,614	8,514	8,663	8,565
Employment–population ratio	45.0	44.6	43.8	44.9	44.8
Unemployed	570	524	542	635	553
Unemployment rate (percent)	6.1	5.7	6.0	6.8	6.1
High school graduates, no college ^¹
Civilian labor force	35,804	36,254	36,264	36,552	35,948
Participation rate (percent)	57.2	57.1	56.9	56.8	56.9
Employed	34,333	34,737	34,754	35,005	34,397
Employment–population ratio	54.9	54.7	54.5	54.4	54.4
Unemployed	1,471	1,517	1,511	1,548	1,551
Unemployment rate (percent)	4.1	4.2	4.2	4.2	4.3
Some college or associate's degree
Civilian labor force	35,845	36,178	35,783	35,723	35,673
Participation rate (percent)	62.3	63.0	62.9	63.2	62.5
Employed	34,766	34,991	34,608	34,485	34,425
Employment–population ratio	60.4	61.0	60.8	61.0	60.3
Unemployed	1,079	1,187	1,175	1,238	1,248
Unemployment rate (percent)	3.0	3.3	3.3	3.5	3.5
Bachelor's degree and higher ^²
Civilian labor force	64,387	64,238	64,938	65,344	65,796
Participation rate (percent)	72.6	72.4	72.8	72.9	72.4
Employed	63,015	62,842	63,490	63,778	64,171
Employment–population ratio	71.0	70.9	71.2	71.1	70.6
Unemployed	1,371	1,396	1,447	1,566	1,626
Unemployment rate (percent)	2.1	2.2	2.2	2.4	2.5
^¹ This category includes people with a high school diploma or equivalent. ^² This category includes people with bachelor’s, master’s, professional, and doctoral degrees. Note: Updated population controls are introduced annually with the release of January data. Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey.

The number of people unemployed for 27 weeks or longer increased in 2024

The number of people who were unemployed for 27 weeks or longer increased over the year to 1.6 million in the fourth quarter of 2024, accounting for more than half of the increase in the total number of unemployed people in 2024. The share of those unemployed for 27 weeks or longer increased to 22.8 percent in the fourth quarter of 2024, up from 19.8 percent in the fourth quarter of 2023. (See chart 4.)

Chart 4. Percentage of total unemployed by duration of unemployment, quarterly averages, seasonally adjusted, 1994–2024
Quarter	Less than 5 weeks	5 to 14 weeks	15 to 26 weeks	27 weeks or more
Q1 1994	33.8	30.0	15.5	20.7
Q2 1994	34.3	30.5	14.4	20.9
Q3 1994	34.5	30.4	15.4	19.7
Q4 1994	34.1	29.5	16.5	19.8
Q1 1995	36.7	30.8	14.5	18.1
Q2 1995	36.0	31.4	14.9	17.7
Q3 1995	36.5	32.4	14.5	16.6
Q4 1995	36.8	32.1	14.6	16.5
Q1 1996	36.4	31.3	15.4	16.9
Q2 1996	35.8	31.3	14.3	18.6
Q3 1996	36.3	31.7	14.0	18.0
Q4 1996	37.2	32.3	14.2	16.2
Q1 1997	37.3	32.5	14.4	15.8
Q2 1997	37.0	31.6	15.5	15.9
Q3 1997	37.2	31.7	14.9	16.2
Q4 1997	39.5	30.9	14.1	15.4
Q1 1998	41.4	30.3	13.3	15.0
Q2 1998	42.6	32.4	11.3	13.7
Q3 1998	41.9	31.9	12.5	13.7
Q4 1998	43.1	31.1	12.0	13.8
Q1 1999	42.0	32.7	12.8	12.5
Q2 1999	43.8	30.3	13.3	12.5
Q3 1999	44.2	30.8	12.9	12.2
Q4 1999	45.1	30.5	12.3	12.1
Q1 2000	45.7	31.4	11.5	11.5
Q2 2000	45.0	32.4	11.5	11.0
Q3 2000	44.5	31.9	11.5	12.0
Q4 2000	44.5	31.8	12.6	11.1
Q1 2001	44.6	31.5	12.5	11.4
Q2 2001	44.5	31.8	13.0	10.7
Q3 2001	40.9	32.6	15.0	11.5
Q4 2001	38.5	32.9	15.4	13.1
Q1 2002	36.8	31.3	16.8	15.1
Q2 2002	33.4	31.9	16.4	18.4
Q3 2002	34.5	30.2	16.4	19.0
Q4 2002	33.5	29.8	15.9	20.8
Q1 2003	33.0	30.2	15.8	21.1
Q2 2003	32.2	29.8	15.8	22.1
Q3 2003	30.6	29.8	17.4	22.2
Q4 2003	30.8	29.4	16.9	22.9
Q1 2004	31.1	29.1	16.8	23.1
Q2 2004	33.3	29.2	15.3	22.2
Q3 2004	34.1	29.9	15.1	20.8
Q4 2004	33.9	28.8	16.0	21.2
Q1 2005	33.6	29.8	15.5	21.1
Q2 2005	35.6	30.2	14.3	19.9
Q3 2005	35.2	31.1	14.8	18.9
Q4 2005	36.4	30.5	14.6	18.5
Q1 2006	36.6	29.6	15.8	18.0
Q2 2006	37.5	30.4	14.1	18.0
Q3 2006	37.5	30.4	14.0	18.2
Q4 2006	37.9	31.2	14.7	16.2
Q1 2007	36.1	31.9	14.5	17.6
Q2 2007	36.0	31.3	16.0	16.8
Q3 2007	35.9	31.1	15.2	17.8
Q4 2007	35.6	32.1	14.3	18.0
Q1 2008	35.2	32.0	15.1	17.7
Q2 2008	34.1	32.3	15.5	18.1
Q3 2008	32.3	31.1	16.6	20.0
Q4 2008	30.5	30.6	16.7	22.2
Q1 2009	27.3	30.6	18.7	23.4
Q2 2009	22.2	29.0	21.0	27.7
Q3 2009	20.2	25.4	19.5	35.0
Q4 2009	19.5	22.9	18.8	38.7
Q1 2010	18.7	22.2	17.4	41.8
Q2 2010	18.4	21.1	15.5	45.1
Q3 2010	19.0	22.5	15.2	43.3
Q4 2010	18.8	22.4	15.6	43.2
Q1 2011	18.5	22.0	15.8	43.7
Q2 2011	20.2	21.3	14.4	44.1
Q3 2011	19.3	21.2	14.9	44.6
Q4 2011	19.8	22.6	14.8	42.8
Q1 2012	20.4	22.3	15.6	41.7
Q2 2012	20.8	22.9	14.3	42.0
Q3 2012	21.4	23.1	14.7	40.7
Q4 2012	21.9	23.4	14.8	39.9
Q1 2013	22.0	24.2	15.2	38.6
Q2 2013	22.3	23.8	16.5	37.4
Q3 2013	22.5	24.2	15.6	37.7
Q4 2013	23.4	24.0	15.8	36.9
Q1 2014	23.5	24.5	16.2	35.8
Q2 2014	25.6	24.7	15.3	34.4
Q3 2014	26.7	25.9	15.6	31.8
Q4 2014	27.2	26.1	15.1	31.6
Q1 2015	27.8	26.4	15.2	30.7
Q2 2015	29.1	28.2	14.6	28.1
Q3 2015	29.2	28.4	15.7	26.6
Q4 2015	29.8	28.2	15.5	26.4
Q1 2016	29.2	28.4	14.7	27.6
Q2 2016	31.1	28.3	14.7	26.0
Q3 2016	30.3	29.6	15.0	25.0
Q4 2016	31.3	28.5	15.4	24.7
Q1 2017	32.9	28.2	14.7	24.2
Q2 2017	32.5	28.7	14.3	24.5
Q3 2017	31.6	28.8	15.1	24.5
Q4 2017	33.2	29.0	14.2	23.6
Q1 2018	35.6	29.5	13.3	21.6
Q2 2018	33.9	30.7	14.3	21.2
Q3 2018	33.9	28.4	15.8	21.9
Q4 2018	34.1	30.4	14.8	20.8
Q1 2019	35.8	29.7	14.2	20.3
Q2 2019	34.2	30.0	13.8	22.1
Q3 2019	34.7	29.5	14.5	21.3
Q4 2019	34.4	29.8	14.9	20.9
Q1 2020	40.2	28.6	13.1	18.2
Q2 2020	34.2	54.2	6.1	5.5
Q3 2020	18.9	25.8	42.1	13.2
Q4 2020	24.2	21.9	18.7	35.2
Q1 2021	22.4	22.3	13.8	41.4
Q2 2021	22.6	22.3	13.6	41.5
Q3 2021	26.5	22.2	13.4	37.8
Q4 2021	29.6	25.3	13.0	32.1
Q1 2022	36.5	26.9	11.6	25.0
Q2 2022	37.3	27.8	12.0	22.9
Q3 2022	36.6	30.3	13.4	19.7
Q4 2022	37.7	28.9	13.5	19.9
Q1 2023	36.9	30.6	14.4	18.2
Q2 2023	34.3	32.0	14.7	19.0
Q3 2023	33.4	30.6	15.6	20.3
Q4 2023	34.4	29.8	16.1	19.8
Q1 2024	35.2	30.3	14.9	19.7
Q2 2024	33.9	30.4	14.7	20.9
Q3 2024	32.8	29.1	15.9	22.2
Q4 2024	30.7	29.1	17.4	22.8
Note: Shaded regions represent recessions as designated by the National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER). Turning points are quarterly. Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey.

At 2.2 million in the fourth quarter of 2024, the number of short-term unemployed people (those who were jobless for less than 5 weeks) changed little over the year. This group accounted for 30.7 percent of all those who were unemployed, down from 34.4 percent in the fourth quarter of 2023. Both the number of people who were unemployed for 5 to 14 weeks and the number who were unemployed for 15 to 26 weeks increased over the year. (See table 4 and chart 4.)

Table 4. Unemployed people, by reason and duration of unemployment, quarterly averages, in thousands, seasonally adjusted, 2023–24
Reason and duration	Fourth quarter, 2023	First quarter, 2024	Second quarter, 2024	Third quarter, 2024	Fourth quarter, 2024
Reason for unemployment
Job losers and persons who completed temporary jobs	3,074	3,099	3,208	3,367	3,336
On temporary layoff	899	823	838	953	823
Not on temporary layoff	2,174	2,276	2,371	2,414	2,513
Permanent job losers	1,586	1,654	1,719	1,690	1,800
Persons who completed temporary jobs	589	622	651	724	713
Job leavers	817	776	753	839	868
Reentrants	1,802	1,920	2,037	2,115	2,121
New entrants	609	621	643	671	651
Percent distribution:
Job losers and persons who completed temporary jobs	48.8	48.3	48.3	48.1	47.8
On temporary layoff	14.3	12.8	12.6	13.6	11.8
Not on temporary layoff	34.5	35.5	35.7	34.5	36.0
Job leavers	13.0	12.1	11.3	12.0	12.4
Reentrants	28.6	29.9	30.7	30.3	30.4
New entrants	9.7	9.7	9.7	9.6	9.3
Duration of unemployment
Less than 5 weeks	2,188	2,229	2,237	2,318	2,158
5 to 14 weeks	1,897	1,924	2,007	2,060	2,047
15 weeks or longer	2,284	2,189	2,347	2,689	2,829
15 to 26 weeks	1,026	942	970	1,121	1,224
27 weeks or longer	1,258	1,246	1,378	1,567	1,604
Average (mean) duration in weeks	21.1	21.1	20.6	21.4	23.4
Median duration, in weeks	9.0	9.4	9.2	9.7	10.3
Percent distribution:
Less than 5 weeks	34.4	35.2	33.9	32.8	30.7
5 to 14 weeks	29.8	30.3	30.4	29.1	29.1
15 weeks or longer	35.9	34.5	35.6	38.1	40.2
15 to 26 weeks	16.1	14.9	14.7	15.9	17.4
27 weeks or longer	19.8	19.7	20.9	22.2	22.8
Note: Updated population controls are introduced annually with the release of January data. Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey.

The median duration of unemployment increased from 9.0 weeks in the fourth quarter of 2023 to 10.3 weeks in the fourth quarter of 2024, reflecting an increase in the number of people who were long-term unemployed (from 1.3 million to 1.6 million). Similarly, the average (mean) duration of unemployment also rose over the year, averaging 23.4 weeks in the fourth quarter of 2024, compared with 21.1 weeks in the fourth quarter of 2023.

Reentrants and permanent job losers contributed to the increase in unemployment in 2024

Unemployed people are grouped into four broad categories by the reasons for their unemployment: (1) those who were on temporary layoff, had permanently lost their job, or had completed a temporary job (referred to as job losers and people who completed temporary jobs); (2) those who voluntarily left their job (job leavers); (3) those who reentered the labor force (reentrants); and (4) those who entered the labor force for the first time (new entrants).

In 2024, the increase in unemployment reflected an increase among the first and third groups—job losers and people who completed temporary jobs, and reentrants. The number of job losers and people who completed temporary jobs increased to 3.3 million in the fourth quarter of 2024, up from 3.1 million in the fourth quarter of 2023. This group accounted for nearly half of the total unemployed at the end of 2024 (47.8 percent). Within this group, the number of permanent job losers rose by 214,000 over the year to 1.8 million, and the number of people on temporary layoff was 823,000 in the fourth quarter of 2024, little changed from the prior year. (See table 4 and chart 5.)

Chart 5. Reasons for unemployment, quarterly averages, seasonally adjusted, in thousands, 1994–2024
Quarter	Job losers on temporary layoff	Job losers not on temporary layoff	Job Leavers	Reentrants	New entrants
Q1 1994	1,061	3,134	840	2,928	627
Q2 1994	893	2,823	804	2,939	603
Q3 1994	973	2,750	797	2,706	611
Q4 1994	924	2,611	721	2,574	582
Q1 1995	1,015	2,416	767	2,465	572
Q2 1995	1,041	2,453	855	2,597	584
Q3 1995	1,033	2,436	845	2,564	592
Q4 1995	1,035	2,485	833	2,485	573
Q1 1996	1,062	2,469	787	2,465	586
Q2 1996	1,078	2,429	705	2,564	571
Q3 1996	950	2,241	758	2,506	580
Q4 1996	968	2,244	846	2,524	583
Q1 1997	976	2,213	814	2,502	607
Q2 1997	949	2,101	795	2,380	570
Q3 1997	849	2,085	847	2,253	563
Q4 1997	922	2,019	714	2,212	534
Q1 1998	902	1,981	773	2,201	536
Q2 1998	792	1,978	699	2,081	528
Q3 1998	902	1,921	754	2,143	488
Q4 1998	856	1,954	708	2,105	523
Q1 1999	861	1,826	746	2,031	497
Q2 1999	844	1,819	807	2,010	440
Q3 1999	864	1,759	785	1,991	477
Q4 1999	818	1,678	799	1,989	468
Q1 2000	806	1,762	785	2,006	414
Q2 2000	850	1,549	766	2,005	433
Q3 2000	882	1,666	795	1,917	449
Q4 2000	896	1,634	771	1,907	437
Q1 2001	999	1,920	823	1,935	406
Q2 2001	1,044	2,141	794	1,884	464
Q3 2001	1,079	2,412	843	2,094	469
Q4 2001	1,212	3,207	880	2,240	497
Q1 2002	1,128	3,332	887	2,350	510
Q2 2002	1,115	3,522	906	2,392	524
Q3 2002	1,133	3,448	826	2,329	564
Q4 2002	1,101	3,638	851	2,399	535
Q1 2003	1,125	3,628	809	2,405	604
Q2 2003	1,179	3,786	823	2,588	642
Q3 2003	1,123	3,846	804	2,476	669
Q4 2003	1,073	3,597	837	2,415	641
Q1 2004	1,034	3,373	834	2,466	657
Q2 2004	981	3,229	864	2,454	673
Q3 2004	995	3,086	862	2,351	701
Q4 2004	950	3,102	875	2,339	712
Q1 2005	958	2,943	883	2,378	695
Q2 2005	894	2,736	899	2,376	708
Q3 2005	957	2,637	836	2,396	621
Q4 2005	919	2,593	871	2,383	648
Q1 2006	889	2,483	842	2,251	655
Q2 2006	942	2,507	848	2,157	585
Q3 2006	905	2,371	831	2,311	632
Q4 2006	967	2,247	784	2,221	583
Q1 2007	971	2,352	800	2,146	612
Q2 2007	949	2,417	773	2,143	596
Q3 2007	969	2,661	819	2,090	619
Q4 2007	1,002	2,752	777	2,195	684
Q1 2008	1,044	2,910	805	2,151	679
Q2 2008	1,091	3,146	858	2,381	736
Q3 2008	1,222	3,691	965	2,639	824
Q4 2008	1,417	4,779	949	2,714	795
Q1 2009	1,543	6,480	873	2,924	882
Q2 2009	1,731	7,572	864	3,213	956
Q3 2009	1,754	7,933	871	3,268	1,081
Q4 2009	1,563	8,194	921	3,339	1,224
Q1 2010	1,569	7,935	894	3,570	1,178
Q2 2010	1,404	7,826	930	3,486	1,188
Q3 2010	1,325	7,764	859	3,383	1,235
Q4 2010	1,363	7,706	878	3,435	1,286
Q1 2011	1,259	7,130	897	3,341	1,306
Q2 2011	1,240	6,999	945	3,436	1,258
Q3 2011	1,188	6,863	964	3,458	1,304
Q4 2011	1,222	6,477	1,016	3,362	1,282
Q1 2012	1,197	5,949	1,025	3,291	1,338
Q2 2012	1,165	5,814	945	3,357	1,353
Q3 2012	1,235	5,590	920	3,342	1,273
Q4 2012	1,100	5,411	981	3,403	1,309
Q1 2013	1,133	5,313	974	3,300	1,273
Q2 2013	1,118	5,065	953	3,292	1,274
Q3 2013	1,098	4,768	942	3,185	1,252
Q4 2013	1,228	4,581	859	3,036	1,191
Q1 2014	1,026	4,359	808	2,929	1,181
Q2 2014	1,031	3,970	845	2,758	1,062
Q3 2014	1,000	3,688	839	2,866	1,083
Q4 2014	956	3,441	799	2,754	1,028
Q1 2015	980	3,200	877	2,671	918
Q2 2015	1,051	3,159	808	2,610	919
Q3 2015	938	3,035	798	2,418	839
Q4 2015	939	2,959	795	2,441	851
Q1 2016	904	2,795	794	2,468	800
Q2 2016	976	2,855	826	2,265	887
Q3 2016	1,006	2,780	881	2,290	826
Q4 2016	975	2,658	930	2,299	782
Q1 2017	997	2,637	821	2,122	773
Q2 2017	902	2,570	785	2,056	690
Q3 2017	974	2,408	765	2,102	658
Q4 2017	947	2,292	743	2,039	644
Q1 2018	855	2,325	787	1,951	654
Q2 2018	873	2,138	818	1,973	591
Q3 2018	848	2,019	817	1,849	570
Q4 2018	834	2,068	755	1,946	594
Q1 2019	862	2,053	806	1,946	621
Q2 2019	804	1,907	815	1,876	557
Q3 2019	815	1,929	822	1,727	599
Q4 2019	810	1,958	812	1,692	584
Q1 2020	1,150	2,007	768	1,829	542
Q2 2020	14,633	3,048	554	1,808	493
Q3 2020	6,683	4,077	669	2,137	541
Q4 2020	3,019	4,462	736	2,078	527
Q1 2021	2,337	4,257	708	2,161	556
Q2 2021	1,894	4,036	853	2,200	522
Q3 2021	1,214	3,297	847	2,311	499
Q4 2021	884	2,476	802	2,122	489
Q1 2022	859	2,148	900	1,984	449
Q2 2022	825	1,902	801	1,941	498
Q3 2022	827	1,824	882	1,807	458
Q4 2022	806	1,872	837	1,823	519
Q1 2023	792	1,962	872	1,778	519
Q2 2023	771	2,040	784	1,797	535
Q3 2023	779	2,059	817	1,936	561
Q4 2023	899	2,174	817	1,802	609
Q1 2024	823	2,276	776	1,920	621
Q2 2024	838	2,371	753	2,037	643
Q3 2024	953	2,414	839	2,115	671
Q4 2024	823	2,513	868	2,121	651
Note: Shaded regions represent recessions as designated by the National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER). Turning points are quarterly. Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey.

The number of reentrants to the labor force grew by 319,000 to reach 2.1 million in the fourth quarter of 2024; reentrants accounted for 30.4 percent of the total unemployed. The number of new entrants to the labor force was little changed, at 651,000 in the fourth quarter of 2024; new entrants made up 9.3 percent of the unemployed, about the same as a year earlier (9.7 percent).

The number of job leavers—people who voluntarily left their jobs to look for new ones—changed little over the year; there was an average of 868,000 people in this group in the fourth quarter of 2024. Job leavers accounted for 12.4 percent of the total number of unemployed people at the end of 2024.

Unemployment increased across all major occupational groups in 2024

Among the major occupational groups, the unemployment rate for management, professional, and related occupations was the lowest in 2024, as in recent years. The unemployment rate for people in this occupational group was 2.3 percent in 2024, up from 2.0 percent in the prior year. (Data are annual averages.) The jobless rate also increased for people in sales and office occupations, from 3.6 percent in 2023 to 3.9 percent in 2024.

The unemployment rate for service occupations rose from 4.5 percent in 2023 to 5.0 percent in 2024. Within this group, the jobless rate for personal care and service occupations increased by 1.0 percentage point to reach 4.7 percent in 2024.

The unemployment rate for people in natural resources, construction, and maintenance occupations, at 4.9 percent in 2024, was up by 0.5 percentage points from the previous year. The jobless rate for production, transportation, and material moving occupations, at 5.3 percent in 2024, was 0.4 percentage points higher than it was in 2023. (See table 5.)

Table 5. Unemployment rates, by occupational group and sex, annual averages, in percent, 2023–24
Occupational group	Total			Men			Women
Occupational group	2023	2024	Change, 2023–24	2023	2024	Change, 2023–24	2023	2024	Change, 2023–24
Management, professional, and related occupations	2.0	2.3	0.3	2.0	2.3	0.3	2.0	2.3	0.3
Management, business, and financial operations occupations	1.9	2.2	0.3	1.9	2.3	0.4	2.0	2.2	0.2
Professional and related occupations	2.0	2.3	0.3	2.1	2.4	0.3	2.0	2.3	0.3
Service occupations	4.5	5.0	0.5	4.7	5.2	0.5	4.4	4.8	0.4
Healthcare support occupations	3.5	3.8	0.3	3.4	4.6	1.2	3.5	3.6	0.1
Protective service occupations	2.9	3.6	0.7	2.6	3.1	0.5	4.0	4.9	0.9
Food preparation and serving related occupations	5.7	6.2	0.5	5.8	6.7	0.9	5.6	5.8	0.2
Building and grounds cleaning and maintenance occupations	5.2	5.2	0.0	5.4	5.1	-0.3	5.1	5.4	0.3
Personal care and service occupations	3.7	4.7	1.0	3.9	5.5	1.6	3.6	4.4	0.8
Sales and office occupations	3.6	3.9	0.3	3.7	3.7	0.0	3.6	4.0	0.4
Sales and related occupations	3.9	4.3	0.4	3.4	3.6	0.2	4.4	5.0	0.6
Office and administrative support occupations	3.4	3.5	0.1	4.3	3.7	-0.6	3.1	3.4	0.3
Natural resources, construction, and maintenance occupations	4.4	4.9	0.5	4.3	4.8	0.5	6.1	6.5	0.4
Farming, fishing, and forestry occupations	7.0	8.9	1.9	6.8	8.3	1.5	7.4	10.6	3.2
Construction and extraction occupations	5.4	5.6	0.2	5.3	5.6	0.3	7.1	5.7	-1.4
Installation, maintenance, and repair occupations	2.1	2.8	0.7	2.1	2.8	0.7	2.5	2.3	-0.2
Production, transportation, and material moving occupations	4.9	5.3	0.4	4.7	4.8	0.1	5.4	6.7	1.3
Production occupations	3.8	4.5	0.7	3.5	3.8	0.3	4.6	6.3	1.7
Transportation and material moving occupations	5.7	5.8	0.1	5.5	5.4	-0.1	6.2	7.1	0.9
Note: The unemployed are classified by occupation according to their last job, which may or may not be similar to the job they are currently seeking. Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey.

All alternative measures of labor underutilization rose in 2024

The U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics uses CPS data to construct six alternative measures of labor underutilization.^⁵ Known as U-1 through U-6 (U-3 is the official unemployment rate), these measures tend to show similar cyclical patterns but provide additional insight into the degree to which labor resources are being underutilized. (See chart 6.) (See the box note that follows for more information about the six measures of labor underutilization.)

Chart 6. Measures of labor underutilization, quarterly averages, seasonally adjusted, in percent, 1994–2024
Quarter	U-1	U-2	U-3	U-4	U-5	U-6
Q1 1994	2.4	3.2	6.6	6.9	7.9	11.5
Q2 1994	2.2	2.8	6.2	6.5	7.4	11.1
Q3 1994	2.1	2.8	6.0	6.4	7.3	10.6
Q4 1994	2.0	2.7	5.6	5.9	6.8	10.2
Q1 1995	1.8	2.6	5.5	5.8	6.6	10.0
Q2 1995	1.8	2.6	5.7	6.0	6.8	10.1
Q3 1995	1.8	2.6	5.7	5.9	6.8	10.1
Q4 1995	1.7	2.7	5.6	5.9	6.7	10.0
Q1 1996	1.8	2.7	5.5	5.8	6.7	9.9
Q2 1996	1.8	2.6	5.5	5.8	6.6	9.8
Q3 1996	1.7	2.4	5.3	5.6	6.3	9.5
Q4 1996	1.6	2.4	5.3	5.6	6.4	9.5
Q1 1997	1.6	2.4	5.2	5.5	6.2	9.3
Q2 1997	1.6	2.2	5.0	5.2	6.0	9.0
Q3 1997	1.5	2.1	4.9	5.1	5.8	8.7
Q4 1997	1.4	2.1	4.7	4.9	5.6	8.5
Q1 1998	1.3	2.1	4.6	4.9	5.6	8.4
Q2 1998	1.1	2.0	4.4	4.6	5.3	8.0
Q3 1998	1.2	2.0	4.5	4.8	5.4	8.0
Q4 1998	1.1	2.0	4.4	4.7	5.3	7.7
Q1 1999	1.1	1.9	4.3	4.5	5.1	7.6
Q2 1999	1.1	1.9	4.3	4.4	5.1	7.5
Q3 1999	1.1	1.9	4.2	4.4	5.0	7.4
Q4 1999	1.0	1.8	4.1	4.3	4.9	7.2
Q1 2000	0.9	1.8	4.0	4.2	4.8	7.1
Q2 2000	0.9	1.7	3.9	4.2	4.7	7.0
Q3 2000	0.9	1.8	4.0	4.2	4.8	7.0
Q4 2000	0.9	1.8	3.9	4.1	4.7	7.0
Q1 2001	1.0	2.0	4.2	4.4	5.0	7.3
Q2 2001	1.1	2.2	4.4	4.6	5.2	7.6
Q3 2001	1.3	2.4	4.8	5.0	5.7	8.2
Q4 2001	1.6	3.1	5.5	5.8	6.4	9.4
Q1 2002	1.8	3.1	5.7	5.9	6.6	9.4
Q2 2002	2.0	3.2	5.8	6.1	6.8	9.6
Q3 2002	2.0	3.2	5.7	6.0	6.7	9.6
Q4 2002	2.2	3.3	5.8	6.1	6.8	9.7
Q1 2003	2.2	3.3	5.9	6.2	6.8	10.0
Q2 2003	2.3	3.4	6.2	6.5	7.1	10.2
Q3 2003	2.4	3.4	6.1	6.4	7.1	10.3
Q4 2003	2.3	3.2	5.8	6.1	6.8	10.0
Q1 2004	2.3	3.0	5.7	6.0	6.7	9.8
Q2 2004	2.1	2.9	5.6	5.9	6.6	9.6
Q3 2004	2.0	2.8	5.4	5.7	6.4	9.4
Q4 2004	2.0	2.7	5.4	5.7	6.4	9.5
Q1 2005	1.9	2.6	5.3	5.6	6.3	9.2
Q2 2005	1.7	2.4	5.1	5.4	6.1	9.0
Q3 2005	1.7	2.4	5.0	5.2	5.9	8.9
Q4 2005	1.6	2.3	5.0	5.2	5.9	8.7
Q1 2006	1.6	2.2	4.7	5.0	5.6	8.3
Q2 2006	1.5	2.3	4.7	4.9	5.6	8.3
Q3 2006	1.5	2.2	4.6	4.9	5.6	8.3
Q4 2006	1.4	2.1	4.5	4.7	5.3	8.1
Q1 2007	1.4	2.2	4.5	4.8	5.4	8.1
Q2 2007	1.5	2.2	4.5	4.7	5.4	8.2
Q3 2007	1.5	2.4	4.7	4.9	5.5	8.4
Q4 2007	1.6	2.4	4.8	5.0	5.6	8.5
Q1 2008	1.6	2.6	5.0	5.2	5.9	9.0
Q2 2008	1.8	2.7	5.3	5.6	6.2	9.7
Q3 2008	2.2	3.2	6.0	6.3	7.0	10.8
Q4 2008	2.7	4.0	6.9	7.2	8.0	12.7
Q1 2009	3.5	5.2	8.3	8.7	9.5	15.0
Q2 2009	4.6	6.0	9.3	9.7	10.6	16.3
Q3 2009	5.2	6.3	9.6	10.0	10.9	16.6
Q4 2009	5.7	6.4	9.9	10.4	11.3	17.1
Q1 2010	5.8	6.2	9.8	10.5	11.2	16.9
Q2 2010	5.8	6.0	9.7	10.3	11.1	16.8
Q3 2010	5.5	5.9	9.5	10.2	10.9	16.6
Q4 2010	5.6	5.9	9.5	10.3	11.0	16.7
Q1 2011	5.4	5.5	9.0	9.6	10.5	16.0
Q2 2011	5.3	5.4	9.1	9.6	10.5	16.0
Q3 2011	5.4	5.2	9.0	9.6	10.5	16.1
Q4 2011	5.0	5.0	8.7	9.2	10.2	15.5
Q1 2012	4.7	4.6	8.3	8.8	9.7	14.9
Q2 2012	4.6	4.5	8.2	8.7	9.6	14.7
Q3 2012	4.4	4.4	8.0	8.5	9.5	14.7
Q4 2012	4.3	4.2	7.8	8.4	9.3	14.4
Q1 2013	4.2	4.1	7.7	8.2	9.1	14.2
Q2 2013	4.1	4.0	7.5	8.1	9.0	14.0
Q3 2013	3.8	3.8	7.3	7.8	8.6	13.6
Q4 2013	3.7	3.7	7.0	7.4	8.3	13.3
Q1 2014	3.5	3.5	6.6	7.1	8.0	12.6
Q2 2014	3.1	3.2	6.2	6.7	7.5	12.2
Q3 2014	2.9	3.0	6.1	6.5	7.4	11.9
Q4 2014	2.7	2.8	5.7	6.2	7.0	11.4
Q1 2015	2.5	2.7	5.5	6.0	6.8	11.0
Q2 2015	2.3	2.7	5.4	5.8	6.6	10.7
Q3 2015	2.2	2.5	5.1	5.5	6.2	10.2
Q4 2015	2.1	2.5	5.0	5.4	6.1	9.9
Q1 2016	2.1	2.3	4.9	5.2	6.0	9.7
Q2 2016	2.0	2.4	4.9	5.2	6.0	9.8
Q3 2016	2.0	2.4	4.9	5.2	6.0	9.7
Q4 2016	1.9	2.3	4.8	5.1	5.8	9.4
Q1 2017	1.8	2.3	4.6	4.9	5.5	9.0
Q2 2017	1.7	2.2	4.4	4.6	5.3	8.6
Q3 2017	1.7	2.1	4.3	4.6	5.2	8.5
Q4 2017	1.6	2.0	4.2	4.5	5.1	8.1
Q1 2018	1.4	2.0	4.0	4.3	4.9	8.0
Q2 2018	1.4	1.9	3.9	4.2	4.8	7.8
Q3 2018	1.4	1.8	3.8	4.1	4.7	7.4
Q4 2018	1.4	1.8	3.8	4.1	4.8	7.6
Q1 2019	1.3	1.8	3.8	4.1	4.7	7.6
Q2 2019	1.3	1.7	3.6	3.9	4.5	7.2
Q3 2019	1.3	1.7	3.6	3.8	4.4	7.0
Q4 2019	1.3	1.7	3.6	3.7	4.3	6.8
Q1 2020	1.2	1.9	3.8	4.1	4.7	7.6
Q2 2020	1.5	11.2	13.0	13.3	14.3	20.6
Q3 2020	4.9	6.7	8.8	9.2	9.9	14.5
Q4 2020	3.6	4.7	6.7	7.1	7.9	11.9
Q1 2021	3.4	4.1	6.2	6.6	7.4	11.0
Q2 2021	3.2	3.7	5.9	6.2	7.0	10.1
Q3 2021	2.6	2.8	5.1	5.3	6.1	8.8
Q4 2021	1.9	2.1	4.2	4.5	5.2	7.7
Q1 2022	1.4	1.8	3.8	4.1	4.7	7.1
Q2 2022	1.3	1.7	3.6	3.9	4.5	6.9
Q3 2022	1.2	1.6	3.5	3.8	4.4	6.8
Q4 2022	1.2	1.6	3.6	3.8	4.4	6.7
Q1 2023	1.1	1.7	3.5	3.7	4.3	6.7
Q2 2023	1.2	1.7	3.6	3.8	4.4	6.8
Q3 2023	1.3	1.7	3.7	3.9	4.5	6.9
Q4 2023	1.4	1.8	3.8	4.0	4.6	7.1
Q1 2024	1.3	1.8	3.8	4	4.7	7.3
Q2 2024	1.4	1.9	4	4.2	4.8	7.4
Q3 2024	1.6	2	4.2	4.4	5	7.8
Q4 2024	1.7	2	4.2	4.4	5	7.7
Note: Shaded regions represent recessions as designated by the National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER). Turning points are quarterly. Measures of labor underutilization are as follows: U-1 = people unemployed 15 weeks or longer, as a percentage of the civilian labor force; U-2 = job losers and people who completed temporary jobs, as a percentage of the civilian labor force; U-3 = total unemployed, as a percentage of the civilian labor force (official unemployment rate); U-4 = total unemployed plus discouraged workers, as a percentage of the civilian labor force plus discouraged workers; U-5 = total unemployed, plus discouraged workers, plus all other marginally attached workers, as a percentage of the civilian labor force plus all marginally attached workers; U-6 = total unemployed, plus all marginally attached workers, plus total employed part time for economic reasons, as a percentage of the civilian labor force plus all marginally attached workers. Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey.

Alternative measures of labor underutilization

Six alternative measures of labor underutilization have long been available from the Current Population Survey. The official concept of unemployment—as measured in the CPS by U-3 in the range of alternative measures (U-1 through U-6)—includes all jobless people who are available to take a job and have actively sought work in the past 4 weeks. The other five measures encompass concepts both narrower (U-1 and U-2) and broader (U-4 through U-6) than the official concept of unemployment. The six measures are defined as follows:

U-1: people unemployed 15 weeks or longer, as a percentage of the civilian labor force
U-2: job losers and people who completed temporary jobs, as a percentage of the civilian labor force
U-3: total unemployed, as a percentage of the civilian labor force (this is the definition used for the official unemployment rate)
U-4: total unemployed plus discouraged workers, as a percentage of the civilian labor force plus discouraged workers
U-5: total unemployed, plus discouraged workers, plus all other marginally attached workers, as a percentage of the civilian labor force plus all marginally attached workers
U-6: total unemployed, plus all marginally attached workers, plus total employed part time for economic reasons, as a percentage of the civilian labor force plus all marginally attached workers

Discouraged workers (included in the U-4, U-5, and U-6 measures) are people who are not in the labor force, want and are available for work, and had looked for a job sometime in the prior 12 months. They are not counted as unemployed because they had not actively searched for work in the 4 weeks preceding the survey. Discouraged workers are not currently looking for work because they believe no jobs are available for them or there are none for which they qualify. The marginally attached category (included in the U-5 and U-6 measures) includes discouraged workers. The inclusion criteria for marginally attached workers are the same as those for discouraged workers, except that the marginally attached can cite any reason for their lack of active job search in the prior 4 weeks. People at work part time for economic reasons (included in the U-6 measure) are those working less than 35 hours per week who want to work full time, are available to do so, and give an economic reason for working part time (for example, their hours had been cut back or they were unable to find a full-time job). These individuals are sometimes referred to as involuntary part-time workers.

Each of the six alternative measures of labor underutilization increased from the fourth quarter of 2023 to the fourth quarter of 2024. U-6 rose by 0.6 percentage points to reach 7.7 percent in the fourth quarter of 2024. The fourth quarter rates for U-5 (5.0 percent), U-4 (4.4 percent), and U-3 (4.2 percent) were each up by 0.4 percentage points over the year. U-2, at 2.0 percent in the fourth quarter of 2024, increased by 0.2 percentage points over the year, and U-1, at 1.7 percent, increased by 0.3 percentage points.

Labor force status flows show people were more likely to remain unemployed in 2024

There can be a great deal of underlying movement among people in the major labor force categories in any given month, even if the over-the-month net changes across different labor force statuses are relatively small. These gross movements are captured by data on labor force flows, which show that millions of people move between employment and unemployment each month, while millions of others leave or enter the labor force.^⁶

In 2024, 15.5 million people, or 5.8 percent of the U.S. civilian noninstitutional population age 16 years and older, changed their labor force status in an average month. Examining the current status (employed, unemployed, or not in the labor force) of people who were unemployed in the previous month provides another perspective on the changes in the unemployment picture for 2024.

Historically, unemployed people are more likely to remain unemployed from one month to the next than they are to find employment or to leave the labor force. The likelihood of unemployed people remaining unemployed trended up over the year; this pattern is consistent with the continued moderation in labor market strength in 2024. In December 2024, the share of unemployed people who remained unemployed was 53.9 percent (calculated as a 3-month moving average), 5.2 percentage points higher than its value of 48.7 percent at the end of 2023. In December 2024, 23.7 percent of people who were unemployed a month earlier found work, while 22.4 percent stopped looking for work and left the labor force. A year earlier, these measures were 27.8 percent and 23.4 percent, respectively. (See chart 7.)

Chart 7. Percentage of the unemployed who found employment, remained unemployed, or left the labor force, 3-month moving average, seasonally adjusted, from April 1990–December 2024
Date	Found employment (UE)	Left the labor force (UN)	Remained unemployed (UU)
Apr 1990	29.6	21.1	49.3
May 1990	28.4	20.8	50.7
Jun 1990	28.2	20.4	51.4
Jul 1990	28.3	20.4	51.3
Aug 1990	28.2	20.4	51.4
Sep 1990	26.7	19.9	53.4
Oct 1990	26.7	19.3	54.0
Nov 1990	26.2	19.3	54.5
Dec 1990	26.4	19.3	54.3
Jan 1991	25.7	19.6	54.7
Feb 1991	25.4	19.4	55.1
Mar 1991	25.4	19.1	55.5
Apr 1991	26.0	18.2	55.7
May 1991	25.3	18.3	56.4
Jun 1991	25.3	18.3	56.4
Jul 1991	24.1	18.9	57.0
Aug 1991	24.6	18.8	56.6
Sep 1991	24.9	18.7	56.4
Oct 1991	25.0	18.8	56.2
Nov 1991	24.7	18.5	56.8
Dec 1991	23.3	18.7	58.0
Jan 1992	24.0	18.1	57.8
Feb 1992	23.4	17.6	59.0
Mar 1992	23.6	17.1	59.3
Apr 1992	22.5	17.4	60.1
May 1992	22.8	17.6	59.6
Jun 1992	22.9	17.5	59.6
Jul 1992	22.9	17.5	59.6
Aug 1992	22.6	17.5	59.8
Sep 1992	22.7	18.1	59.2
Oct 1992	22.8	18.5	58.8
Nov 1992	23.3	18.4	58.3
Dec 1992	23.5	18.5	57.9
Jan 1993	23.4	18.1	58.4
Feb 1993	23.0	19.0	58.0
Mar 1993	23.0	19.0	58.0
Apr 1993	23.3	19.0	57.7
May 1993	23.9	18.0	58.1
Jun 1993	23.7	17.4	58.9
Jul 1993	24.0	17.7	58.3
Aug 1993	23.8	18.4	57.8
Sep 1993	23.8	19.1	57.1
Oct 1993	23.7	19.1	57.3
Nov 1993	24.0	19.2	56.8
Dec 1993	25.0	19.2	55.8
Jan 1994	25.4	19.5	55.0
Feb 1994	25.7	20.0	54.3
Mar 1994	25.6	20.8	53.5
Apr 1994	25.7	21.8	52.5
May 1994	26.2	22.5	51.3
Jun 1994	26.2	23.3	50.4
Jul 1994	26.6	23.5	49.8
Aug 1994	26.9	23.4	49.7
Sep 1994	27.4	22.6	50.0
Oct 1994	27.1	22.3	50.6
Nov 1994	27.0	22.8	50.2
Dec 1994	28.0	23.1	48.9
Jan 1995	28.8	23.4	47.7
Feb 1995	29.0	23.1	47.8
Mar 1995	28.4	22.7	48.9
Apr 1995	28.3	22.1	49.6
May 1995	27.7	22.5	49.8
Jun 1995	27.5	22.8	49.7
Jul 1995	27.4	23.1	49.5
Aug 1995	28.2	22.6	49.2
Sep 1995	28.1	22.9	49.0
Oct 1995	28.5	23.5	48.0
Nov 1995	27.8	23.7	48.5
Dec 1995	27.1	23.5	49.4
Jan 1996	26.6	23.0	50.4
Feb 1996	26.8	23.1	50.1
Mar 1996	27.4	23.1	49.5
Apr 1996	27.3	23.0	49.7
May 1996	27.1	23.1	49.8
Jun 1996	27.1	23.6	49.3
Jul 1996	27.5	23.7	48.8
Aug 1996	28.2	23.4	48.4
Sep 1996	28.6	23.0	48.3
Oct 1996	28.9	22.5	48.5
Nov 1996	28.5	22.6	48.9
Dec 1996	27.8	22.0	50.1
Jan 1997	28.2	22.6	49.2
Feb 1997	28.6	22.4	49.0
Mar 1997	29.4	22.4	48.2
Apr 1997	28.7	22.7	48.6
May 1997	29.0	22.9	48.1
Jun 1997	29.3	23.3	47.4
Jul 1997	30.2	23.0	46.8
Aug 1997	29.3	23.6	47.0
Sep 1997	28.6	23.7	47.7
Oct 1997	28.1	24.1	47.8
Nov 1997	28.9	23.5	47.6
Dec 1997	30.1	23.6	46.3
Jan 1998	30.1	23.6	46.3
Feb 1998	30.5	24.2	45.2
Mar 1998	29.9	24.8	45.3
Apr 1998	30.8	25.0	44.1
May 1998	30.5	24.6	44.8
Jun 1998	31.0	23.6	45.4
Jul 1998	30.4	23.3	46.3
Aug 1998	30.9	23.0	46.1
Sep 1998	30.9	23.5	45.6
Oct 1998	31.0	23.6	45.4
Nov 1998	30.9	24.3	44.8
Dec 1998	30.7	25.1	44.2
Jan 1999	30.9	25.3	43.8
Feb 1999	31.0	24.9	44.0
Mar 1999	31.9	24.3	43.8
Apr 1999	31.2	24.3	44.4
May 1999	31.1	24.8	44.1
Jun 1999	30.4	24.4	45.2
Jul 1999	31.2	23.7	45.1
Aug 1999	31.6	23.0	45.4
Sep 1999	31.8	22.8	45.4
Oct 1999	31.7	23.4	44.8
Nov 1999	32.5	23.7	43.8
Dec 1999	33.1	24.5	42.4
Jan 2000	34.7	23.7	41.6
Feb 2000	33.6	23.7	42.7
Mar 2000	33.0	23.8	43.2
Apr 2000	32.5	24.5	43.0
May 2000	32.2	24.8	43.0
Jun 2000	32.1	25.1	42.7
Jul 2000	32.0	24.6	43.4
Aug 2000	32.5	24.5	43.0
Sep 2000	32.4	24.4	43.2
Oct 2000	32.5	24.3	43.2
Nov 2000	32.1	23.6	44.2
Dec 2000	31.5	22.7	45.8
Jan 2001	30.9	22.6	46.5
Feb 2001	30.7	23.1	46.2
Mar 2001	31.0	23.5	45.4
Apr 2001	30.6	24.4	45.0
May 2001	31.3	24.2	44.5
Jun 2001	31.1	23.8	45.0
Jul 2001	31.1	22.9	45.9
Aug 2001	30.0	22.5	47.5
Sep 2001	29.4	22.2	48.4
Oct 2001	28.4	22.0	49.6
Nov 2001	27.9	21.6	50.5
Dec 2001	27.0	21.3	51.7
Jan 2002	26.5	21.3	52.2
Feb 2002	26.8	20.8	52.4
Mar 2002	26.9	20.5	52.5
Apr 2002	26.8	19.9	53.3
May 2002	25.5	20.4	54.1
Jun 2002	24.6	20.8	54.7
Jul 2002	24.2	22.0	53.8
Aug 2002	24.6	21.7	53.6
Sep 2002	25.4	21.5	53.0
Oct 2002	25.7	20.9	53.4
Nov 2002	24.8	21.4	53.8
Dec 2002	23.8	21.4	54.7
Jan 2003	24.0	21.9	54.1
Feb 2003	23.8	21.7	54.5
Mar 2003	23.8	22.5	53.7
Apr 2003	23.5	21.7	54.7
May 2003	23.5	21.8	54.6
Jun 2003	23.7	20.9	55.4
Jul 2003	23.2	21.2	55.6
Aug 2003	23.4	21.5	55.1
Sep 2003	23.2	21.8	54.9
Oct 2003	23.3	22.1	54.6
Nov 2003	23.5	21.7	54.8
Dec 2003	24.5	21.9	53.6
Jan 2004	25.1	21.1	53.8
Feb 2004	24.9	21.8	53.2
Mar 2004	24.0	22.0	53.9
Apr 2004	24.2	22.8	53.0
May 2004	24.8	22.2	53.0
Jun 2004	25.2	21.9	52.9
Jul 2004	25.4	21.9	52.6
Aug 2004	25.1	22.8	52.1
Sep 2004	25.7	23.4	50.9
Oct 2004	26.1	23.3	50.7
Nov 2004	26.8	22.5	50.6
Dec 2004	26.6	22.2	51.1
Jan 2005	26.2	22.2	51.6
Feb 2005	26.1	21.9	52.0
Mar 2005	26.0	22.1	51.9
Apr 2005	26.3	22.2	51.5
May 2005	26.1	22.9	51.0
Jun 2005	26.1	23.0	50.8
Jul 2005	25.8	23.7	50.5
Aug 2005	26.8	23.7	49.5
Sep 2005	26.6	23.9	49.6
Oct 2005	26.6	23.8	49.6
Nov 2005	26.2	23.8	50.0
Dec 2005	26.5	24.5	49.0
Jan 2006	27.1	24.7	48.1
Feb 2006	26.6	25.0	48.4
Mar 2006	27.0	24.2	48.7
Apr 2006	27.0	24.2	48.8
May 2006	27.7	24.4	47.8
Jun 2006	28.3	24.6	47.0
Jul 2006	28.6	24.6	46.8
Aug 2006	28.9	24.5	46.6
Sep 2006	29.0	24.1	46.8
Oct 2006	28.6	24.4	46.9
Nov 2006	28.5	23.8	47.7
Dec 2006	28.8	23.6	47.6
Jan 2007	29.2	22.7	48.0
Feb 2007	29.6	23.5	46.8
Mar 2007	29.6	23.6	46.8
Apr 2007	29.2	23.5	47.3
May 2007	28.9	22.9	48.2
Jun 2007	27.4	22.9	49.6
Jul 2007	27.4	23.0	49.6
Aug 2007	26.9	22.8	50.2
Sep 2007	27.3	22.6	50.1
Oct 2007	27.1	22.6	50.3
Nov 2007	26.9	23.0	50.1
Dec 2007	26.9	22.3	50.8
Jan 2008	26.9	21.5	51.5
Feb 2008	26.4	21.9	51.6
Mar 2008	26.3	22.6	51.0
Apr 2008	26.4	23.9	49.7
May 2008	26.2	23.0	50.8
Jun 2008	25.3	22.6	52.1
Jul 2008	24.3	21.2	54.5
Aug 2008	23.8	21.1	55.1
Sep 2008	23.9	21.3	54.8
Oct 2008	23.4	21.6	55.0
Nov 2008	22.5	21.3	56.2
Dec 2008	21.0	21.0	58.0
Jan 2009	20.1	20.6	59.2
Feb 2009	19.5	20.0	60.4
Mar 2009	18.6	19.4	61.9
Apr 2009	18.2	18.8	62.9
May 2009	17.3	18.7	64.0
Jun 2009	17.6	18.2	64.2
Jul 2009	17.3	18.4	64.3
Aug 2009	17.3	18.7	63.9
Sep 2009	17.1	18.8	64.0
Oct 2009	16.4	18.7	64.9
Nov 2009	16.6	18.2	65.2
Dec 2009	15.9	18.6	65.4
Jan 2010	16.3	18.7	64.9
Feb 2010	16.2	18.9	64.9
Mar 2010	16.8	18.7	64.4
Apr 2010	17.3	18.5	64.2
May 2010	17.6	18.9	63.5
Jun 2010	17.2	19.5	63.3
Jul 2010	16.9	20.0	63.0
Aug 2010	16.7	20.0	63.2
Sep 2010	16.8	19.9	63.3
Oct 2010	16.6	19.9	63.5
Nov 2010	16.6	19.7	63.7
Dec 2010	17.0	19.9	63.0
Jan 2011	16.9	20.4	62.6
Feb 2011	16.8	20.9	62.3
Mar 2011	16.7	20.6	62.6
Apr 2011	16.7	20.5	62.8
May 2011	16.8	20.4	62.8
Jun 2011	16.9	20.5	62.6
Jul 2011	17.1	20.6	62.3
Aug 2011	17.2	20.4	62.4
Sep 2011	17.2	20.8	62.0
Oct 2011	17.5	20.2	62.3
Nov 2011	17.9	20.3	61.8
Dec 2011	18.3	19.9	61.8
Jan 2012	18.4	20.7	60.9
Feb 2012	18.4	21.0	60.6
Mar 2012	18.3	21.2	60.4
Apr 2012	18.1	21.1	60.8
May 2012	18.0	21.2	60.8
Jun 2012	17.8	21.2	61.0
Jul 2012	17.9	21.2	60.9
Aug 2012	17.8	21.7	60.5
Sep 2012	18.1	22.2	59.6
Oct 2012	18.6	22.6	58.7
Nov 2012	18.8	22.8	58.4
Dec 2012	18.4	22.7	58.9
Jan 2013	18.1	22.1	59.8
Feb 2013	18.4	21.8	59.8
Mar 2013	18.4	21.8	59.7
Apr 2013	18.5	21.9	59.6
May 2013	18.7	21.4	59.9
Jun 2013	19.3	20.9	59.8
Jul 2013	19.7	21.4	58.9
Aug 2013	19.6	22.0	58.4
Sep 2013	19.2	22.2	58.5
Oct 2013	18.6	22.9	58.5
Nov 2013	18.7	22.5	58.8
Dec 2013	19.3	22.9	57.8
Jan 2014	20.3	22.8	56.9
Feb 2014	21.3	22.7	56.1
Mar 2014	21.9	22.2	55.9
Apr 2014	22.0	22.2	55.8
May 2014	21.5	23.1	55.4
Jun 2014	21.5	23.9	54.6
Jul 2014	21.3	23.7	55.0
Aug 2014	21.7	23.7	54.6
Sep 2014	21.8	23.3	54.8
Oct 2014	22.9	23.2	53.8
Nov 2014	23.1	23.5	53.4
Dec 2014	23.4	24.0	52.5
Jan 2015	22.7	24.4	52.9
Feb 2015	22.8	24.9	52.3
Mar 2015	22.8	25.0	52.1
Apr 2015	23.4	25.0	51.5
May 2015	23.6	24.1	52.3
Jun 2015	23.9	24.2	51.9
Jul 2015	23.3	24.8	51.8
Aug 2015	24.0	25.2	50.7
Sep 2015	23.9	25.2	50.8
Oct 2015	24.6	24.4	50.9
Nov 2015	24.5	23.9	51.6
Dec 2015	25.1	22.9	51.9
Jan 2016	25.3	23.4	51.3
Feb 2016	24.4	24.4	51.2
Mar 2016	23.5	24.3	52.1
Apr 2016	22.9	24.1	53.0
May 2016	23.7	24.3	51.9
Jun 2016	24.2	24.7	51.1
Jul 2016	24.8	24.1	51.0
Aug 2016	24.5	23.0	52.4
Sep 2016	24.6	22.4	53.0
Oct 2016	25.1	22.7	52.2
Nov 2016	25.8	23.5	50.6
Dec 2016	25.7	24.6	49.8
Jan 2017	26.0	23.5	50.3
Feb 2017	26.3	22.4	51.1
Mar 2017	26.4	22.3	51.1
Apr 2017	26.4	23.4	50.1
May 2017	26.2	23.8	50.0
Jun 2017	26.6	23.9	49.5
Jul 2017	27.5	23.4	49.1
Aug 2017	27.2	24.0	48.8
Sep 2017	27.8	23.7	48.5
Oct 2017	27.3	24.6	48.1
Nov 2017	28.0	23.7	48.3
Dec 2017	27.6	23.8	48.5
Jan 2018	27.2	23.7	49.0
Feb 2018	27.3	24.2	48.5
Mar 2018	27.4	24.7	47.9
Apr 2018	27.7	24.8	47.5
May 2018	27.2	25.2	47.6
Jun 2018	26.8	24.4	48.8
Jul 2018	26.8	23.9	49.3
Aug 2018	27.5	23.8	48.6
Sep 2018	28.0	24.7	47.2
Oct 2018	28.5	24.7	46.7
Nov 2018	28.5	24.9	46.6
Dec 2018	28.5	23.6	47.9
Jan 2019	28.0	23.3	48.6
Feb 2019	27.6	24.3	48.0
Mar 2019	27.7	24.8	47.3
Apr 2019	27.3	25.7	47.0
May 2019	27.0	25.1	47.9
Jun 2019	27.1	25.1	47.8
Jul 2019	27.7	24.1	48.1
Aug 2019	28.0	23.5	48.4
Sep 2019	27.9	24.0	48.0
Oct 2019	27.3	24.9	47.8
Nov 2019	26.9	24.5	48.5
Dec 2019	27.4	23.9	48.6
Jan 2020	28.9	23.6	47.3
Feb 2020	29.7	24.3	45.9
Mar 2020	27.9	25.0	47.0
Apr 2020	23.2	29.6	47.2
May 2020	29.1	21.0	49.9
Jun 2020	32.8	17.8	49.4
Jul 2020	33.2	15.5	51.2
Aug 2020	31.6	16.3	52.1
Sep 2020	27.3	18.2	54.5
Oct 2020	27.1	19.2	53.8
Nov 2020	25.5	20.0	54.5
Dec 2020	24.8	20.5	54.7
Jan 2021	23.3	20.6	55.9
Feb 2021	23.6	20.9	55.4
Mar 2021	23.7	21.0	55.2
Apr 2021	23.7	20.9	55.3
May 2021	23.4	21.9	54.7
Jun 2021	23.5	21.2	55.3
Jul 2021	23.6	22.3	54.1
Aug 2021	24.2	22.1	53.7
Sep 2021	24.8	23.2	51.9
Oct 2021	25.7	22.5	51.8
Nov 2021	26.7	23.4	49.9
Dec 2021	27.8	23.9	48.3
Jan 2022	28.7	24.9	46.4
Feb 2022	29.7	24.3	45.9
Mar 2022	30.5	24.5	44.9
Apr 2022	29.9	25.4	44.7
May 2022	29.2	25.8	45.0
Jun 2022	29.0	25.5	45.5
Jul 2022	29.8	25.3	44.8
Aug 2022	30.6	25.0	44.3
Sep 2022	30.2	24.9	44.8
Oct 2022	29.2	25.0	45.7
Nov 2022	28.4	25.7	45.9
Dec 2022	29.2	25.3	45.4
Jan 2023	29.2	25.2	45.6
Feb 2023	28.9	23.9	47.2
Mar 2023	28.1	23.8	48.1
Apr 2023	28.2	22.4	49.3
May 2023	27.2	23.5	49.3
Jun 2023	26.7	24.6	48.6
Jul 2023	27.6	24.8	47.5
Aug 2023	27.9	24.0	48.1
Sep 2023	28.4	22.9	48.6
Oct 2023	27.3	23.4	49.3
Nov 2023	28.2	23.3	48.5
Dec 2023	27.8	23.4	48.7
Jan 2024	27.8	23.7	48.4
Feb 2024	26.7	24.5	48.7
Mar 2024	26.5	24.5	48.9
Apr 2024	26.7	24.3	49.0
May 2024	27.1	24.3	48.6
Jun 2024	27.1	23.6	49.2
Jul 2024	26.6	22.6	50.7
Aug 2024	26.5	22.1	51.3
Sep 2024	26.9	22.5	50.5
Oct 2024	26.4	22.9	50.7
Nov 2024	24.5	22.6	52.9
Dec 2024	23.7	22.4	53.9
Note: Shaded regions represent recessions as designated by the National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER). Turning points are monthly. Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey.

Number of people not in the labor force increased in 2024

People who are neither employed nor unemployed are classified as not in the labor force—that is, these individuals are not currently working and have not looked for work in the 4 weeks preceding the survey.^⁷ The number of people who were not in the labor force increased in 2024. Although the majority of people who are not in the labor force do not want a job, a small percentage (5.5 percent in the fourth quarter of 2024) of this group do want a job but had not sought employment in the 4 weeks preceding the survey. The number of people not in the labor force who wanted a job was little changed from a year earlier. (See table 6 and chart 8.)

Table 6. Number of people not in the labor force, fourth quarter averages, in thousands, seasonally adjusted, 2020–24
Category	Fourth quarter, 2020	Fourth quarter, 2021	Fourth quarter, 2022	Fourth quarter, 2023	Fourth quarter, 2024
Category	Fourth quarter, 2020	Fourth quarter, 2021	Fourth quarter, 2022	Fourth quarter, 2023	Fourth quarter, 2024
Total not in the labor force	100,287	99,847	99,988	100,062	101,037
Persons who currently want a job	7,026	5,823	5,461	5,464	5,547
Marginally attached to the labor force ^¹	2,054	1,629	1,406	1,521	1,570
Discouraged workers ^²	633	454	396	398	422
^¹ Data refer to people who want a job, have searched for work during the prior 12 months, and were available to take a job during the reference week, but had not looked for work in the 4 weeks prior to the survey. ^² Includes those who did not actively look for work in the 4 weeks prior to the survey for reasons such as thinks no work available, could not find work, lacks schooling or training, employer thinks too young or old, and other types of discrimination. Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey.

People who are not in the labor force are considered marginally attached to the labor force if they wanted a job, were available for work, and had looked for work sometime in the prior 12 months (but not in the 4 weeks before the survey). In the fourth quarter of 2024, about 1.6 million people were marginally attached to the labor force, little changed from a year earlier.

A subset of the marginally attached are discouraged workers—people who were not currently looking for work because they believed there were no jobs available for them or none for which they would qualify (i.e., they are discouraged over their job prospects). In the fourth quarter of 2024, there were about 400,000 discouraged workers, little changed from the fourth quarter of 2023. (See table 6 and chart 8.)

Chart 8. People not in the labor force, quarterly averages, in thousands, 1994–2024
Quarter	People who currently want a job	Marginally attached to the labor force	Discouraged workers
Q1 1994	6,475	1,855	523
Q2 1994	6,360	1,800	499
Q3 1994	6,104	1,829	520
Q4 1994	5,898	1,739	457
Q1 1995	5,791	1,647	430
Q2 1995	5,602	1,543	390
Q3 1995	5,573	1,574	402
Q4 1995	5,714	1,607	418
Q1 1996	5,608	1,620	424
Q2 1996	5,495	1,608	396
Q3 1996	5,404	1,502	411
Q4 1996	5,277	1,496	356
Q1 1997	5,089	1,456	360
Q2 1997	4,988	1,491	363
Q3 1997	4,862	1,332	319
Q4 1997	4,810	1,383	330
Q1 1998	4,880	1,380	348
Q2 1998	4,792	1,272	312
Q3 1998	4,906	1,333	325
Q4 1998	4,660	1,252	338
Q1 1999	4,658	1,224	292
Q2 1999	4,737	1,246	245
Q3 1999	4,466	1,156	283
Q4 1999	4,377	1,177	273
Q1 2000	4,483	1,172	246
Q2 2000	4,375	1,191	311
Q3 2000	4,370	1,150	242
Q4 2000	4,426	1,115	249
Q1 2001	4,423	1,182	303
Q2 2001	4,554	1,188	329
Q3 2001	4,656	1,313	313
Q4 2001	4,726	1,384	340
Q1 2002	4,653	1,367	334
Q2 2002	4,733	1,460	365
Q3 2002	4,720	1,488	395
Q4 2002	4,576	1,450	387
Q1 2003	4,716	1,513	444
Q2 2003	4,667	1,476	473
Q3 2003	4,839	1,589	456
Q4 2003	4,663	1,549	457
Q1 2004	4,779	1,591	462
Q2 2004	4,693	1,564	489
Q3 2004	4,841	1,567	486
Q4 2004	5,113	1,576	426
Q1 2005	4,992	1,610	478
Q2 2005	5,036	1,550	426
Q3 2005	4,917	1,511	416
Q4 2005	4,998	1,504	420
Q1 2006	4,928	1,462	399
Q2 2006	4,693	1,464	400
Q3 2006	4,826	1,469	402
Q4 2006	4,692	1,391	322
Q1 2007	4,592	1,412	387
Q2 2007	4,873	1,454	395
Q3 2007	4,771	1,335	346
Q4 2007	4,553	1,380	347
Q1 2008	4,768	1,494	409
Q2 2008	4,838	1,500	418
Q3 2008	5,033	1,604	440
Q4 2008	5,315	1,855	581
Q1 2009	5,711	2,031	697
Q2 2009	5,940	2,220	790
Q3 2009	5,867	2,252	758
Q4 2009	6,062	2,412	869
Q1 2010	6,011	2,367	1,060
Q2 2010	5,882	2,485	1,184
Q3 2010	6,067	2,505	1,176
Q4 2010	6,301	2,590	1,275
Q1 2011	6,463	2,578	954
Q2 2011	6,448	2,526	949
Q3 2011	6,413	2,611	1,048
Q4 2011	6,415	2,565	1,002
Q1 2012	6,327	2,518	953
Q2 2012	6,433	2,506	893
Q3 2012	6,781	2,525	836
Q4 2012	6,704	2,514	950
Q1 2013	6,693	2,392	813
Q2 2013	6,589	2,445	900
Q3 2013	6,310	2,342	903
Q4 2013	5,968	2,261	829
Q1 2014	6,181	2,292	747
Q2 2014	6,323	2,187	737
Q3 2014	6,322	2,173	740
Q4 2014	6,465	2,176	733
Q1 2015	6,386	2,102	715
Q2 2015	6,134	2,030	680
Q3 2015	5,952	1,871	635
Q4 2015	5,852	1,822	631
Q1 2016	5,888	1,822	597
Q2 2016	5,788	1,795	552
Q3 2016	5,892	1,820	571
Q4 2016	5,827	1,776	493
Q1 2017	5,723	1,650	502
Q2 2017	5,483	1,576	453
Q3 2017	5,599	1,573	469
Q4 2017	5,262	1,550	478
Q1 2018	5,152	1,546	427
Q2 2018	5,181	1,456	391
Q3 2018	5,283	1,490	442
Q4 2018	5,375	1,578	433
Q1 2019	5,246	1,468	431
Q2 2019	5,113	1,486	409
Q3 2019	4,991	1,425	384
Q4 2019	4,820	1,236	304
Q1 2020	5,182	1,454	437
Q2 2020	8,999	2,363	622
Q3 2020	7,281	1,984	604
Q4 2020	7,026	2,054	633
Q1 2021	6,957	1,940	562
Q2 2021	6,535	1,853	584
Q3 2021	5,998	1,710	440
Q4 2021	5,823	1,629	454
Q1 2022	5,654	1,477	393
Q2 2022	5,724	1,525	413
Q3 2022	5,716	1,523	426
Q4 2022	5,461	1,406	396
Q1 2023	5,134	1,360	350
Q2 2023	5,392	1,487	366
Q3 2023	5,332	1,467	367
Q4 2023	5,464	1,521	398
Q1 2024	5,640	1,597	404
Q2 2024	5,534	1,531	397
Q3 2024	5,641	1,531	410
Q4 2024	5,547	1,570	422
Note: Shaded regions represent recessions as designated by the National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER). Turning points are quarterly. Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey.

These three subsets of people who are not in the labor force—those who currently want a job, the marginally attached, and discouraged workers—increased during the Great Recession and its aftermath and then began to trend downward until early 2020. With the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic, the number of people not in the labor force who wanted a job rose sharply. This increase reflected the impact of the pandemic on the labor market, as mandatory business closures, stay-at-home orders, and fears of contracting the virus kept many people from engaging in labor market activity. The numbers of marginally attached and discouraged workers also rose during this period but have returned to levels similar to what they had been before the pandemic.

Labor force participation rate held fairly steady in 2024, but employment–population ratio declined

The overall labor force participation rate was 62.5 percent in the fourth quarter of 2024, little changed from the previous year. The participation rate remains below its prepandemic value of 63.3 percent in the fourth quarter of 2019. The labor force participation rates for both men and women changed little over the year, at 68.0 percent and 57.3 percent, respectively, in the fourth quarter of 2024.^⁸ (See table 1 and chart 9.)

Chart 9. Labor force participation rate and employment–population ratio, quarterly averages, seasonally adjusted, in percent, 1968–2024
Quarter	Labor force participation rate	Employment–population ratio
Q1 1968	59.4	57.2
Q2 1968	59.8	57.7
Q3 1968	59.6	57.5
Q4 1968	59.6	57.6
Q1 1969	59.8	57.8
Q2 1969	60.0	57.9
Q3 1969	60.2	58.1
Q4 1969	60.3	58.1
Q1 1970	60.5	57.9
Q2 1970	60.4	57.5
Q3 1970	60.3	57.2
Q4 1970	60.4	56.9
Q1 1971	60.2	56.6
Q2 1971	60.0	56.5
Q3 1971	60.2	56.6
Q4 1971	60.3	56.7
Q1 1972	60.3	56.8
Q2 1972	60.4	57.0
Q3 1972	60.4	57.1
Q4 1972	60.4	57.2
Q1 1973	60.4	57.4
Q2 1973	60.8	57.8
Q3 1973	60.8	57.9
Q4 1973	61.1	58.2
Q1 1974	61.3	58.2
Q2 1974	61.2	58.0
Q3 1974	61.3	57.9
Q4 1974	61.3	57.2
Q1 1975	61.2	56.2
Q2 1975	61.3	55.9
Q3 1975	61.3	56.1
Q4 1975	61.1	56.0
Q1 1976	61.3	56.5
Q2 1976	61.5	56.9
Q3 1976	61.7	57.0
Q4 1976	61.8	57.0
Q1 1977	61.9	57.2
Q2 1977	62.2	57.8
Q3 1977	62.2	58.0
Q4 1977	62.6	58.5
Q1 1978	62.8	58.8
Q2 1978	63.1	59.3
Q3 1978	63.2	59.4
Q4 1978	63.5	59.7
Q1 1979	63.7	60.0
Q2 1979	63.4	59.8
Q3 1979	63.7	60.0
Q4 1979	63.8	60.0
Q1 1980	63.9	59.9
Q2 1980	63.8	59.1
Q3 1980	63.7	58.8
Q4 1980	63.7	59.0
Q1 1981	64.0	59.2
Q2 1981	64.1	59.4
Q3 1981	63.7	59.0
Q4 1981	63.8	58.5
Q1 1982	63.8	58.1
Q2 1982	64.0	58.0
Q3 1982	64.1	57.7
Q4 1982	64.1	57.3
Q1 1983	63.8	57.1
Q2 1983	63.9	57.5
Q3 1983	64.3	58.2
Q4 1983	64.1	58.6
Q1 1984	64.0	59.0
Q2 1984	64.5	59.6
Q3 1984	64.5	59.7
Q4 1984	64.5	59.8
Q1 1985	64.8	60.1
Q2 1985	64.7	60.0
Q3 1985	64.7	60.1
Q4 1985	64.9	60.4
Q1 1986	65.0	60.5
Q2 1986	65.2	60.6
Q3 1986	65.4	60.8
Q4 1986	65.4	60.9
Q1 1987	65.4	61.1
Q2 1987	65.6	61.4
Q3 1987	65.6	61.7
Q4 1987	65.7	61.9
Q1 1988	65.8	62.0
Q2 1988	65.8	62.2
Q3 1988	66.0	62.3
Q4 1988	66.1	62.6
Q1 1989	66.3	62.9
Q2 1989	66.4	63.0
Q3 1989	66.5	63.0
Q4 1989	66.5	63.0
Q1 1990	66.7	63.1
Q2 1990	66.5	63.0
Q3 1990	66.5	62.7
Q4 1990	66.4	62.3
Q1 1991	66.3	61.9
Q2 1991	66.3	61.7
Q3 1991	66.1	61.6
Q4 1991	66.1	61.4
Q1 1992	66.3	61.4
Q2 1992	66.6	61.5
Q3 1992	66.6	61.5
Q4 1992	66.3	61.4
Q1 1993	66.2	61.5
Q2 1993	66.2	61.5
Q3 1993	66.3	61.8
Q4 1993	66.3	61.9
Q1 1994	66.6	62.2
Q2 1994	66.5	62.4
Q3 1994	66.5	62.5
Q4 1994	66.7	63.0
Q1 1995	66.8	63.1
Q2 1995	66.6	62.9
Q3 1995	66.6	62.8
Q4 1995	66.5	62.8
Q1 1996	66.5	62.8
Q2 1996	66.7	63.1
Q3 1996	66.9	63.3
Q4 1996	67.0	63.5
Q1 1997	67.0	63.5
Q2 1997	67.1	63.8
Q3 1997	67.2	63.9
Q4 1997	67.1	64.0
Q1 1998	67.1	64.0
Q2 1998	67.0	64.1
Q3 1998	67.1	64.0
Q4 1998	67.2	64.2
Q1 1999	67.1	64.3
Q2 1999	67.1	64.2
Q3 1999	67.1	64.2
Q4 1999	67.1	64.4
Q1 2000	67.3	64.6
Q2 2000	67.2	64.5
Q3 2000	66.9	64.2
Q4 2000	66.9	64.3
Q1 2001	67.2	64.3
Q2 2001	66.8	63.8
Q3 2001	66.7	63.5
Q4 2001	66.7	63.0
Q1 2002	66.6	62.8
Q2 2002	66.7	62.8
Q3 2002	66.6	62.8
Q4 2002	66.4	62.5
Q1 2003	66.3	62.4
Q2 2003	66.4	62.4
Q3 2003	66.1	62.1
Q4 2003	66.1	62.2
Q1 2004	66	62.3
Q2 2004	66	62.3
Q3 2004	66	62.4
Q4 2004	66	62.4
Q1 2005	65.9	62.4
Q2 2005	66.1	62.7
Q3 2005	66.1	62.8
Q4 2005	66	62.8
Q1 2006	66.1	63.0
Q2 2006	66.1	63.1
Q3 2006	66.1	63.1
Q4 2006	66.3	63.3
Q1 2007	66.3	63.3
Q2 2007	66.0	63.0
Q3 2007	65.9	62.8
Q4 2007	66.0	62.8
Q1 2008	66.1	62.8
Q2 2008	66.0	62.5
Q3 2008	66.0	62.1
Q4 2008	65.9	61.4
Q1 2009	65.7	60.2
Q2 2009	65.7	59.6
Q3 2009	65.3	59.0
Q4 2009	64.9	58.4
Q1 2010	64.9	58.5
Q2 2010	64.9	58.6
Q3 2010	64.6	58.5
Q4 2010	64.4	58.3
Q1 2011	64.2	58.4
Q2 2011	64.1	58.3
Q3 2011	64.1	58.3
Q4 2011	64.1	58.5
Q1 2012	63.8	58.5
Q2 2012	63.7	58.5
Q3 2012	63.6	58.5
Q4 2012	63.7	58.7
Q1 2013	63.5	58.5
Q2 2013	63.4	58.6
Q3 2013	63.3	58.7
Q4 2013	62.9	58.5
Q1 2014	63.0	58.8
Q2 2014	62.8	58.9
Q3 2014	62.9	59.0
Q4 2014	62.9	59.3
Q1 2015	62.7	59.3
Q2 2015	62.8	59.4
Q3 2015	62.5	59.3
Q4 2015	62.6	59.4
Q1 2016	62.8	59.8
Q2 2016	62.8	59.7
Q3 2016	62.8	59.8
Q4 2016	62.7	59.7
Q1 2017	62.9	60.0
Q2 2017	62.9	60.1
Q3 2017	62.9	60.2
Q4 2017	62.7	60.1
Q1 2018	62.8	60.3
Q2 2018	62.9	60.4
Q3 2018	62.8	60.4
Q4 2018	63.0	60.5
Q1 2019	63.1	60.6
Q2 2019	62.9	60.6
Q3 2019	63.1	60.9
Q4 2019	63.3	61.0
Q1 2020	63.1	60.7
Q2 2020	60.8	52.9
Q3 2020	61.5	56.1
Q4 2020	61.6	57.4
Q1 2021	61.4	57.6
Q2 2021	61.6	58.0
Q3 2021	61.7	58.6
Q4 2021	61.9	59.3
Q1 2022	62.2	59.9
Q2 2022	62.2	60.0
Q3 2022	62.2	60.0
Q4 2022	62.2	60.0
Q1 2023	62.5	60.3
Q2 2023	62.6	60.4
Q3 2023	62.7	60.4
Q4 2023	62.6	60.3
Q1 2024	62.6	60.2
Q2 2024	62.6	60.1
Q3 2024	62.7	60.1
Q4 2024	62.5	59.9
Note: Shaded regions represent recessions as designated by the National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER).Turning points are quarterly. Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey.

The total number of employed people increased in 2024, although less than in 2023. (See appendix B for additional information.) The employment–population ratio (the percentage of the population ages 16 and older who are employed) declined over the year to 59.9 percent; the employment–population ratios were down for both men and women.

Labor force participation edged down for people who are Black

The labor force participation rate for people who are Black or African American edged down over the year to 62.6 percent in the fourth quarter of 2024. The participation rates for Whites (62.2 percent) and Asians (64.7 percent) were unchanged over the year, while the rate for Hispanics (67.1 percent) was little changed.

The employment–population ratio for Black or African American people, at 58.8 percent in the fourth quarter of 2024, decreased by 1.0 percentage point over the year. Over the same period, the employment–population ratio for Whites (59.8 percent) edged down, while the ratio for Asians (62.3 percent) was little changed. The employment–population ratio for Hispanics (63.7 percent) was unchanged over the year. (See table 1.)

Labor force participation increased for people ages 25 to 54

The labor force participation rate for workers ages 25 to 54 increased in 2024, averaging 83.5 percent in the fourth quarter. The labor force participation rate for women reached a historic high of 78.2 percent in the third quarter of 2024, before slipping back to 77.8 percent in the fourth quarter, which was still an increase from a year earlier. The participation rate for men in this age group was 89.2 percent in the fourth quarter of 2024, the same as a year earlier. (See table 2.)

Among workers age 55 and older, the labor force participation rate was little changed over the year, averaging 38.4 percent in the fourth quarter of 2024. The share of the population that is age 55 and older is growing, and older people tend to participate in the labor force at much lower rates than younger people do. This is evident from the detailed age categories for older workers—the labor force participation rate for 55- to 64-year-olds, for example, was 65.7 percent in the fourth quarter of 2024, much higher than the rate of 19.8 percent for those age 65 and older. (Data for people ages 55 to 64 and age 65 and older are not seasonally adjusted.)

The labor force participation rate for younger workers (ages 16 to 24) fell to 55.9 percent in the fourth quarter of 2024. As part of an ongoing historical pattern, young adults (ages 20 to 24) participated in the labor force at almost double the rate of teenagers (ages 16 to 19): 71.8 percent versus 36.5 percent, respectively, in the fourth quarter of 2024.

Employment–population ratio declined for younger people

The employment–population ratio for people ages 16 to 24, at 50.7 percent in the fourth quarter of 2024, decreased by 1.0 percentage point over the year. The ratio declined for both workers ages 16 to 19 and those ages 20 to 24.

The employment–population ratio for workers ages 25 to 54 was little changed over the year, at 80.5 percent in the fourth quarter of 2024. Among women ages 25 to 54, the employment–population ratio reached its all-time high of 75.4 percent in the middle of 2024, before declining to 74.9 percent in the fourth quarter, resulting in a slight decrease over the year. The employment–population ratio for men in this age group, at 86.2 percent in the fourth quarter 2024, was little changed over the year.

The employment–population ratio for people age 55 and older was 37.3 percent in the fourth quarter of 2024, down slightly over the year. Within this age group, the men’s employment–population ratio declined, while the women’s ratio was little changed.

The employment–population ratio for people with a bachelor’s degree and higher edged down in 2024

For people age 25 and older, the employment–population ratio for those with less than a high school diploma, at 44.8 percent in the fourth quarter 2024, was little changed over the year. The ratios for high school graduates with no college (54.4 percent) and for those with some college or an associate degree (60.3 percent) were also little changed from the previous year. People with a bachelor’s degree and higher saw a slight decline in their employment–population ratio over the year: from 71.0 in the fourth quarter of 2023 to 70.6 percent in the fourth quarter of 2024. (See table 3.)

The prevalence of self-employment was little changed in 2024

The unincorporated self-employed accounted for 5.8 percent of nonagricultural workers in the fourth quarter of 2024, little changed from the rate of 5.7 percent at the end of 2023. The share of unincorporated self-employed workers experienced a long-term decline, falling from 7.7 percent in the first quarter of 1994 to 5.6 percent in the second quarter of 2019, just before the onset of the pandemic. The percentage of unincorporated self-employed increased briefly at the start of the pandemic before declining to 5.8 percent in the fourth quarter of 2024. (See table 7 and chart 10.)

Table 7. Employed people by class of worker, quarterly averages, in thousands, seasonally adjusted, 2023–24
Class of worker	Fourth quarter, 2023	First quarter, 2024	Second quarter, 2024	Third quarter, 2024	Fourth quarter, 2024
Agriculture and related industries	2,228	2,209	2,286	2,285	2,235
Wage and salary workers ^¹	1,524	1,520	1,580	1,622	1,526
Self-employed workers, unincorporated	692	661	657	630	697
Nonagricultural industries	159,260	158,808	159,013	159,252	159,293
Wage and salary workers ^¹	150,142	149,552	149,665	149,851	150,085
Self-employed workers, unincorporated	9,108	9,325	9,237	9,294	9,178
^¹ Includes self-employed workers whose businesses are incorporated. Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey.

Chart 10. Nonagricultural self-employment rate, quarterly averages, in percent, 1994–2024
Quarter	Self-employment rate
Q1 1994	7.7
Q2 1994	7.6
Q3 1994	7.5
Q4 1994	7.4
Q1 1995	7.3
Q2 1995	7.3
Q3 1995	7.4
Q4 1995	7.3
Q1 1996	7.4
Q2 1996	7.3
Q3 1996	7.2
Q4 1996	7.3
Q1 1997	7.4
Q2 1997	7.2
Q3 1997	7.0
Q4 1997	7.0
Q1 1998	7.0
Q2 1998	7.0
Q3 1998	7.0
Q4 1998	6.9
Q1 1999	6.8
Q2 1999	6.8
Q3 1999	6.8
Q4 1999	6.7
Q1 2000	6.9
Q2 2000	6.9
Q3 2000	6.9
Q4 2000	6.7
Q1 2001	6.8
Q2 2001	6.8
Q3 2001	6.8
Q4 2001	6.7
Q1 2002	6.5
Q2 2002	6.6
Q3 2002	6.7
Q4 2002	6.8
Q1 2003	6.8
Q2 2003	6.8
Q3 2003	7.0
Q4 2003	7.0
Q1 2004	6.9
Q2 2004	6.8
Q3 2004	7.0
Q4 2004	7.0
Q1 2005	7.0
Q2 2005	6.9
Q3 2005	6.7
Q4 2005	6.7
Q1 2006	6.9
Q2 2006	6.8
Q3 2006	6.7
Q4 2006	6.9
Q1 2007	6.7
Q2 2007	6.7
Q3 2007	6.6
Q4 2007	6.5
Q1 2008	6.5
Q2 2008	6.5
Q3 2008	6.5
Q4 2008	6.2
Q1 2009	6.5
Q2 2009	6.5
Q3 2009	6.6
Q4 2009	6.6
Q1 2010	6.6
Q2 2010	6.5
Q3 2010	6.4
Q4 2010	6.4
Q1 2011	6.4
Q2 2011	6.3
Q3 2011	6.1
Q4 2011	6.2
Q1 2012	6.2
Q2 2012	6.2
Q3 2012	6.3
Q4 2012	6.3
Q1 2013	6.1
Q2 2013	6.1
Q3 2013	6.2
Q4 2013	6.0
Q1 2014	6.0
Q2 2014	5.9
Q3 2014	6.0
Q4 2014	6.1
Q1 2015	5.9
Q2 2015	6.1
Q3 2015	5.9
Q4 2015	5.8
Q1 2016	5.9
Q2 2016	6.0
Q3 2016	5.8
Q4 2016	5.9
Q1 2017	5.8
Q2 2017	5.7
Q3 2017	5.7
Q4 2017	5.9
Q1 2018	5.9
Q2 2018	5.8
Q3 2018	5.7
Q4 2018	5.8
Q1 2019	5.7
Q2 2019	5.6
Q3 2019	5.7
Q4 2019	5.7
Q1 2020	5.7
Q2 2020	5.9
Q3 2020	6.0
Q4 2020	5.9
Q1 2021	6.0
Q2 2021	6.1
Q3 2021	6.3
Q4 2021	6.1
Q1 2022	5.9
Q2 2022	5.9
Q3 2022	5.8
Q4 2022	5.8
Q1 2023	5.8
Q2 2023	5.6
Q3 2023	5.6
Q4 2023	5.7
Q1 2024	5.9
Q2 2024	5.8
Q3 2024	5.8
Q4 2024	5.8
Note: Shaded regions represent recessions as designated by the National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER).Turning points are quarterly. Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey.

Number of involuntary part-time workers rose in 2024

People who work part time for economic reasons, often referred to as involuntary part-time workers, work less than 35 hours per week but would prefer full-time employment. These individuals work a reduced number of hours because of unfavorable business conditions (slack work) or because they cannot find full-time work. The number of involuntary part-time workers averaged around 4.5 million in the fourth quarter of 2024, up from about 4.2 million a year earlier.^⁹ Most of the growth in involuntary part-time workers occurred among those reporting slack work as the reason for working a part-time schedule. (See chart 11.)

Chart 11. Number of people employed part time for economic reasons, quarterly averages, seasonally adjusted, in thousands, 1994–2024
Quarter	Part-time for economic reasons	Slack work or business conditions	Could only find part-time work
Q1 1994	4,838	2,461	2,070
Q2 1994	4,801	2,463	1,983
Q3 1994	4,399	2,401	1,691
Q4 1994	4,460	2,409	1,754
Q1 1995	4,466	2,400	1,775
Q2 1995	4,477	2,430	1,730
Q3 1995	4,510	2,524	1,681
Q4 1995	4,462	2,556	1,618
Q1 1996	4,290	2,417	1,566
Q2 1996	4,368	2,375	1,636
Q3 1996	4,377	2,501	1,581
Q4 1996	4,254	2,267	1,651
Q1 1997	4,181	2,354	1,513
Q2 1997	4,142	2,347	1,466
Q3 1997	4,031	2,201	1,506
Q4 1997	3,928	2,235	1,392
Q1 1998	3,882	2,177	1,392
Q2 1998	3,756	2,137	1,288
Q3 1998	3,594	2,092	1,199
Q4 1998	3,397	1,951	1,148
Q1 1999	3,475	2,025	1,140
Q2 1999	3,416	1,995	1,090
Q3 1999	3,305	1,930	1,076
Q4 1999	3,220	1,909	1,007
Q1 2000	3,202	1,883	1,001
Q2 2000	3,226	1,920	1,000
Q3 2000	3,191	2,003	886
Q4 2000	3,296	2,030	906
Q1 2001	3,303	2,044	925
Q2 2001	3,507	2,256	961
Q3 2001	3,723	2,405	1,006
Q4 2001	4,382	2,925	1,138
Q1 2002	4,167	2,737	1,087
Q2 2002	4,117	2,714	1,110
Q3 2002	4,258	2,822	1,146
Q4 2002	4,321	2,872	1,158
Q1 2003	4,701	3,097	1,241
Q2 2003	4,653	3,146	1,255
Q3 2003	4,650	3,098	1,274
Q4 2003	4,808	3,123	1,345
Q1 2004	4,666	2,949	1,417
Q2 2004	4,533	2,811	1,428
Q3 2004	4,470	2,744	1,380
Q4 2004	4,598	2,849	1,404
Q1 2005	4,343	2,681	1,357
Q2 2005	4,342	2,651	1,373
Q3 2005	4,522	2,810	1,373
Q4 2005	4,201	2,604	1,254
Q1 2006	4,090	2,597	1,205
Q2 2006	4,110	2,610	1,162
Q3 2006	4,204	2,679	1,188
Q4 2006	4,243	2,753	1,200
Q1 2007	4,251	2,753	1,193
Q2 2007	4,376	2,859	1,220
Q3 2007	4,502	2,921	1,207
Q4 2007	4,479	2,980	1,220
Q1 2008	4,884	3,315	1,223
Q2 2008	5,349	3,709	1,324
Q3 2008	5,976	4,261	1,454
Q4 2008	7,343	5,422	1,559
Q1 2009	8,662	6,531	1,762
Q2 2009	9,015	6,788	1,937
Q3 2009	8,923	6,719	1,997
Q4 2009	9,064	6,561	2,155
Q1 2010	8,899	6,226	2,311
Q2 2010	8,866	6,200	2,348
Q3 2010	8,849	6,262	2,335
Q4 2010	8,881	5,990	2,477
Q1 2011	8,526	5,770	2,443
Q2 2011	8,552	5,777	2,477
Q3 2011	8,745	5,723	2,668
Q4 2011	8,425	5,559	2,454
Q1 2012	8,106	5,374	2,455
Q2 2012	8,029	5,231	2,508
Q3 2012	8,242	5,339	2,551
Q4 2012	8,104	5,060	2,650
Q1 2013	8,017	5,125	2,563
Q2 2013	8,002	5,010	2,597
Q3 2013	7,893	4,933	2,649
Q4 2013	7,827	4,930	2,596
Q1 2014	7,343	4,419	2,627
Q2 2014	7,395	4,441	2,572
Q3 2014	7,200	4,302	2,584
Q4 2014	6,926	4,151	2,433
Q1 2015	6,702	3,971	2,359
Q2 2015	6,544	3,860	2,309
Q3 2015	6,238	3,706	2,212
Q4 2015	6,019	3,514	2,194
Q1 2016	5,977	3,569	2,107
Q2 2016	6,097	3,704	2,053
Q3 2016	5,955	3,652	1,948
Q4 2016	5,747	3,456	1,955
Q1 2017	5,596	3,466	1,866
Q2 2017	5,304	3,208	1,769
Q3 2017	5,253	3,204	1,703
Q4 2017	4,848	2,998	1,570
Q1 2018	5,045	3,069	1,617
Q2 2018	4,907	3,058	1,505
Q3 2018	4,544	2,768	1,413
Q4 2018	4,615	2,839	1,504
Q1 2019	4,681	3,027	1,358
Q2 2019	4,482	2,796	1,388
Q3 2019	4,222	2,559	1,325
Q4 2019	4,242	2,653	1,264
Q1 2020	4,805	3,159	1,323
Q2 2020	10,205	9,179	857
Q3 2020	7,418	6,133	1,063
Q4 2020	6,478	5,117	1,112
Q1 2021	5,943	4,675	1,038
Q2 2021	5,037	3,835	1,011
Q3 2021	4,453	3,129	1,017
Q4 2021	4,222	2,855	1,055
Q1 2022	3,998	2,640	1,025
Q2 2022	3,991	2,689	995
Q3 2022	3,969	2,712	922
Q4 2022	3,762	2,568	880
Q1 2023	4,064	2,782	915
Q2 2023	3,943	2,761	879
Q3 2023	4,094	2,802	978
Q4 2023	4,175	2,905	987
Q1 2024	4,364	2,933	1,057
Q2 2024	4,368	2,994	1,121
Q3 2024	4,670	3,116	1,201
Q4 2024	4,464	3,008	1,153
Note: Shaded regions represent recessions as designated by the National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER). Turning points are quarterly. Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey.

Overall, the employment situation for veterans changed little in 2024

There were 17.5 million veterans age 18 and older in the fourth quarter of 2024.^¹⁰ (Data are not seasonally adjusted.) Veterans who served during World War II, the Korean War, and the Vietnam era make up the largest portion of the veteran population, 5.5 million. The next largest numbers are those who served during Gulf War-era II (5.3 million), followed by Gulf War-era I (2.9 million). About 3.7 million veterans served on active duty during other service periods, mainly between the Korean War and the Vietnam era and between the Vietnam era and Gulf War-era I. Among veterans, women accounted for about 12 percent of the total veteran population in the fourth quarter of 2024.^¹¹

The unemployment rate for veterans was 2.8 percent in the fourth quarter of 2024, unchanged from the fourth quarter of 2023; this rate was considerably lower than the rate of 3.9 percent for nonveterans in the fourth quarter of 2024. The jobless rate showed little change among all the service periods. For Gulf War-era II veterans, the unemployment rate was 3.4 percent in the fourth quarter of 2024, little changed from the rate a year earlier. Similarly, the fourth quarter 2024 jobless rates for veterans of Gulf War-era I (1.6 percent), of World War II, the Korean War, and the Vietnam era (1.7 percent), and of other service periods (3.3 percent) were little changed compared with the fourth quarter of 2023.

The labor force participation rate for veterans (48.1 percent) changed little over the year. Labor force participation rates are generally lower for older veterans who served during earlier wartime periods than they are for those who served in the more recent Gulf War-era II period. The labor force participation rate for Gulf War-era I veterans declined by 4.8 percentage points to 68.2 percent in the fourth quarter of 2024. The rate for veterans of other service periods was 40.8 percent, little changed over the year. The labor force participation rate for those who served during World War II, the Korean War, and the Vietnam era—who are all over the age of 65 and accounted for about 32 percent of the veteran population—was little changed, at 13.1 percent in the fourth quarter of 2024. Gulf War-era II veterans, who tend to be younger, had a much higher participation rate, at 78.7 percent, little changed from a year earlier. (See table 8.)

Table 8. Employment status of people 18 years and older, by veteran status, period of service, and sex, quarterly averages, in thousands, not seasonally adjusted, 2023–24
Employment status, veteran status, and period of service	Total		Men		Women
Employment status, veteran status, and period of service	Fourth quarter, 2023	Fourth quarter, 2024	Fourth quarter, 2023	Fourth quarter, 2024	Fourth quarter, 2023	Fourth quarter, 2024
Veterans, 18 years and older
Civilian labor force	8,633	8,396	7432	7,211	1,202	1,185
Participation rate (percent)	48.6	48.1	47.2	46.8	58.8	57.7
Employed	8,389	8,161	7,224	7,019	1,165	1,142
Employment–population ratio	47.2	46.7	45.9	45.6	57.0	55.5
Unemployed	245	235	208	192	37	44
Unemployment rate (percent)	2.8	2.8	2.8	2.7	3.1	3.7
Gulf War-era II veterans
Civilian labor force	4,088	4,173	3,384	3,475	705	698
Participation rate (percent)	79.4	78.7	80.3	80.5	75.4	70.6
Employed	3,947	4,031	3,267	3,363	680	668
Employment–population ratio	76.7	76.0	77.5	77.9	72.8	67.5
Unemployed	141	142	116	112	25	30
Unemployment rate (percent)	3.5	3.4	3.4	3.2	3.5	4.3
Gulf War-era I veterans
Civilian labor force	2,118	1,974	1,805	1,695	313	279
Participation rate (percent)	73.0	68.2	73.5	68.6	70.2	66.0
Employed	2,069	1,944	1,762	1,675	307	269
Employment–population ratio	71.3	67.1	71.7	67.8	68.8	63.5
Unemployed	49	31	43	20	6	11
Unemployment rate (percent)	2.3	1.6	2.4	1.2	1.9	3.8
World War II, Korean War, and Vietnam-era veterans
Civilian labor force	778	724	758	690	20	34
Participation rate (percent)	13.3	13.1	13.5	13.0	8.0	14.6
Employed	759	712	740	677	19	34
Employment–population ratio	13.0	12.9	13.2	12.8	7.7	14.6
Unemployed	18	13	18	13	1	0
Unemployment rate (percent)	2.4	1.7	2.3	1.8	^¹	^¹
Veterans of other service periods
Civilian labor force	1,650	1,525	1,485	1,351	165	174
Participation rate (percent)	42.5	40.8	42.9	40.6	39.5	42.5
Employed	1,613	1,475	1,454	1,304	159	171
Employment–population ratio	41.6	39.5	42.0	39.2	38.2	41.8
Unemployed	36	50	31	47	5	3
Unemployment rate (percent)	2.2	3.3	2.1	3.5	3.3	1.6
Nonveterans, 18 years and older
Civilian labor force	156,405	157,571	80,259	80,709	76,146	76,862
Participation rate (percent)	65.0	64.9	72.7	72.6	58.4	58.5
Employed	150,996	151,476	77,267	77,482	73,729	73,993
Employment–population ratio	62.7	62.4	70.0	69.7	56.6	56.3
Unemployed	5,409	6,095	2,993	3,227	2,416	2,869
Unemployment rate (percent)	3.5	3.9	3.7	4.0	3.2	3.7
^¹ Indicates that there are no data or the data do not meet publication criteria (rates not shown where base is less than 60,000). Note: Veterans are men and women who previously served on active duty in the U.S. Armed Forces and were not on active duty at the time of the survey. Nonveterans never served on active duty in the U.S. Armed Forces. Veterans could have served anywhere in the world during these periods of service: Gulf War era II (September 2001–present), Gulf War era I (August 1990–August 2001), Vietnam era (August 1964–April 1975), Korean War (July 1950–January 1955), World War II (December 1941–December 1946), and other service periods (all other time periods). Veterans are only counted in one period of service, their most recent wartime period. Veterans who served in both a wartime period and any other service period are classified in the wartime period. Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey.

Unemployment rate for people with a disability held fairly steady in 2024

In the fourth quarter of 2024, the unemployment rate for people with a disability was little changed from a year earlier, at 7.3 percent. (Data are not seasonally adjusted.) The jobless rate for people with no disability increased by 0.3 percentage points over the year to 3.7 percent. The unemployment rate of people with a disability remained about twice as high as the rate for those with no disability.

The labor force participation rate for people with a disability reached a series high in the fourth quarter of 2024 (24.8 percent), although it was not markedly different from the rate in the fourth quarter of 2023 (24.5 percent). From 2015 to 2019, the labor force participation rate for people with a disability ranged between 19.2 percent and 21.1 percent; the participation rate trended up in the post-pandemic period. The employment–population ratio for people with a disability (23.0 percent in the fourth quarter) was little changed from a year earlier.

Among those with no disability, the employment–population ratio decreased over the year to 65.4 percent, while the labor force participation rate was little changed, at 67.9 percent. The lower employment–population ratio and labor force participation rate for people with a disability reflect, in part, the older age profile of those with a disability; older people, regardless of disability status, are less likely to engage in labor market activity. (See table 9.)

Table 9. Employment status of the civilian noninstitutional population, by sex, age, and disability status, quarterly averages, in thousands, not seasonally adjusted, 2023–24
Employment status, sex, and age	People with a disability		People with no disability
Employment status, sex, and age	Fourth quarter, 2023	Fourth quarter, 2024	Fourth quarter, 2023	Fourth quarter, 2024
Total, 16 years and older
Civilian noninstitutional population	33,797	34,581	234,021	234,882
Civilian labor force	8,295	8,576	159,175	159,584
Participation rate (percent)	24.5	24.8	68.0	67.9
Employed	7,704	7,948	153,823	153,615
Employment–population ratio	22.8	23.0	65.7	65.4
Unemployed	592	628	5,352	5,969
Unemployment rate (percent)	7.1	7.3	3.4	3.7
Men, 16 to 64 years
Civilian labor force	3,522	3,704	79,128	78,717
Participation rate (percent)	42.3	42.2	82.6	82.8
Employed	3,214	3,403	76,242	75,654
Employment–population ratio	38.6	38.8	79.5	79.6
Unemployed	308	301	2,886	3,062
Unemployment rate (percent)	8.8	8.1	3.6	3.9
Women, 16 to 64 years
Civilian labor force	3,388	3,423	70,023	70,467
Participation rate (percent)	39.5	39.6	72.8	73.0
Employed	3,175	3,158	67,808	67,863
Employment–population ratio	37.0	36.5	70.5	70.3
Unemployed	214	264	2,215	2,604
Unemployment rate (percent)	6.3	7.7	3.2	3.7
Total, 65 years and over
Civilian labor force	1,385	1,450	10,024	10,401
Participation rate (percent)	8.2	8.4	23.8	24.0
Employed	1,315	1,387	9,773	10,098
Employment–population ratio	7.8	8.1	23.2	23.3
Unemployed	70	63	251	303
Unemployment rate (percent)	5.0	4.3	2.5	2.9
Note: A person with a disability has at least one of the following conditions: is deaf or has serious difficulty hearing; is blind or has serious difficulty seeing even when wearing glasses; has serious difficulty concentrating, remembering, or making decisions because of a physical, mental, or emotional condition; has serious difficulty walking or climbing stairs; has difficulty dressing or bathing; or has difficulty doing errands alone such as visiting a doctor’s office or shopping because of a physical, mental, or emotional condition. Updated population controls are introduced annually with the release of January data. Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey.

The foreign born continued to participate in the labor force at higher rates than the native born

The foreign born accounted for about 19.2 percent of the U.S. civilian labor force age 16 and older in the fourth quarter of 2024, up from about 18.8 percent a year earlier. (See appendix B for a discussion about recent population control effects.) Unemployment rates increased over the year for both the foreign-born (4.3 percent) and native-born (3.8 percent) populations.^¹² (Data are not seasonally adjusted.) In 2024, the employment–population ratio for foreign-born people (63.4 percent) was little changed, while the ratio for native-born people fell to 59.2 percent. (See table 10.)

Table 10. Employment status of the foreign- and native-born populations by sex, quarterly averages, in thousands, not seasonally adjusted, 2023–24
Employment status and nativity	Total		Men		Women
Employment status and nativity	Fourth quarter, 2023	Fourth quarter, 2024	Fourth quarter, 2023	Fourth quarter, 2024	Fourth quarter, 2023	Fourth quarter, 2024
Foreign-born population, 16 years and older
Civilian noninstitutional population	47,466	48,700	23,254	23,938	24,211	24,762
Civilian labor force	31,445	32,269	17,944	18,429	13,501	13,840
Participation rate	66.2	66.3	77.2	77.0	55.8	55.9
Employed	30,288	30,881	17,275	17,751	13,013	13,130
Employment–population ratio	63.8	63.4	74.3	74.2	53.7	53.0
Unemployed	1,157	1,388	669	678	489	710
Unemployment rate	3.7	4.3	3.7	3.7	3.6	5.1
Native-born population, 16 years and older
Civilian noninstitutional population	220,353	220,764	107,647	107,433	112,705	113,330
Civilian labor force	136,025	135,891	70,922	70,542	65,104	65,349
Participation rate	61.7	61.6	65.9	65.7	57.8	57.7
Employed	131,238	130,682	68,222	67,650	63,016	63,031
Employment–population ratio	59.6	59.2	63.4	63.0	55.9	55.6
Unemployed	4,787	5,209	2,700	2,891	2,087	2,317
Unemployment rate	3.5	3.8	3.8	4.1	3.2	3.5
Note: The foreign born are those residing in the United States who were not U.S. citizens at birth. That is, they were born outside the United States or one of its outlying areas, such as Puerto Rico or Guam, to parents who were not U.S. citizens. This group includes legally admitted immigrants, refugees, students, temporary workers, and undocumented immigrants. The survey data, however, do not separately identify the number of people in these categories. The native born are people who were born in the United States or one of its outlying areas, such as Puerto Rico or Guam, or who were born abroad of at least one parent who was a U.S. citizen. Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey.

The foreign-born population continued to have a higher labor force participation rate (66.3 percent) than did the native-born population (61.6 percent) in 2024. Labor force participation rates for both populations were little changed over the year.

Median weekly earnings of full-time wage and salary workers increased slightly more than inflation did over the year

Median weekly earnings for full-time wage and salary workers were $1,159 in 2024, an increase of 3.8 percent from 2023.^¹³ During the same period, inflation, as measured by the Consumer Price Index for All Urban Consumers (CPI-U), increased by 2.9 percent. As a result, real median usual weekly earnings (adjusted with the use of the CPI-U), edged up in 2024, to $369.^¹⁴ (See table 11.)

Table 11. Median usual weekly earnings of full-time wage and salary workers, by selected characteristics, annual averages, 2023–24
Characteristic	Current dollars			Constant (1982–84) dollars
Characteristic	2023	2024	Percent change, 2023–24	2023	2024	Percent change, 2023–24
Total, 16 years and older	1,117	1,159	3.8	367	369	0.7
Men	1,202	1,261	4.9	394	402	1.9
Women	1,005	1,043	3.8	330	333	1.0
White	1,138	1,177	3.4	373	375	0.4
Men	1,225	1,288	5.1	402	411	2.2
Women	1,021	1,061	3.9	335	338	0.9
Black or African American	920	959	4.2	302	306	1.3
Men	970	1,002	3.3	318	320	0.5
Women	889	922	3.7	292	294	0.8
Asian	1,474	1,525	3.5	484	486	0.5
Men	1,635	1,726	5.6	537	550	2.5
Women	1,299	1,365	5.1	426	435	2.0
Hispanic or Latino ethnicity	874	902	3.2	287	288	0.4
Men	915	963	5.2	300	307	2.2
Women	800	832	4.0	263	265	0.9
Total, 25 years and older	1,170	1,221	4.4	384	390	1.5
Less than a high school diploma	708	738	4.2	232	236	1.4
High school graduate, no college	899	930	3.4	295	297	0.6
Some college or associate degree	1,016	1,056	3.9	333	337	1.1
Bachelor's degree or higher	1,609	1,692	5.2	528	540	2.3
Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey and Consumer Price Index.

Women’s median weekly earnings were $1,043 in 2024, 82.7 percent of men’s median weekly earnings ($1,261) in the same period. In 1979, the first year for which comparable data on usual weekly earnings are available, women’s earnings represented only 62.3 percent of men’s earnings. (See chart 12.)

Chart 12. Women's median usual weekly earnings as a percentage of men's, annual averages, 1979–2024
Year	Women's earnings as a percentage of men's earnings
1979	62.3
1980	64.2
1981	64.4
1982	65.7
1983	66.5
1984	67.6
1985	68.1
1986	69.5
1987	69.8
1988	70.2
1989	70.1
1990	71.9
1991	74.2
1992	75.8
1993	77.1
1994	76.4
1995	75.5
1996	75.0
1997	74.4
1998	76.3
1999	76.5
2000	76.9
2001	76.4
2002	77.9
2003	79.4
2004	80.4
2005	81.0
2006	80.8
2007	80.2
2008	79.9
2009	80.2
2010	81.2
2011	82.2
2012	80.9
2013	82.1
2014	82.5
2015	81.1
2016	81.9
2017	81.8
2018	81.1
2019	81.5
2020	82.3
2021	83.1
2022	83.0
2023	83.6
2024	82.7
Note: Values calculated using current dollars. Data are for full-time wage and salary workers. Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey.

Median weekly earnings were highest for men ages 35 to 64. By age group, median weekly earnings were $1,414 for men ages 35 to 44, $1,467 for men ages 45 to 54, and $1,421 for men ages 55 to 64. Women’s median weekly earnings were highest for workers ages 35 to 54. Median weekly earnings were $1,147 for women ages 35 to 44 and $1,166 for women ages 45 to 54. Men and women ages 16 to 24 had the lowest median weekly earnings, $778 and $709, respectively. The difference between men’s and women’s earnings was smaller among younger workers than older workers. For example, women ages 16 to 24 earned 91.1 percent as much as their male counterparts, while women age 65 and over earned 77.3 percent as much as men in that age group. (See chart 13.)

Chart 13. Median usual weekly earnings of full-time wage and salary workers by age and sex, annual averages, in U.S. dollars, 2024
Age	Total, 16 years and over	16 to 24 years	25 to 34 years	35 to 44 years	45 to 54 years	55 to 64 years	65 years and over
Men	1,261	778	1,158	1,414	1,467	1,421	1,300
Women	1,043	709	1,023	1,147	1,166	1,088	1,005
Note: Values displayed are in current dollars. Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey.

Median weekly earnings increased over the year for all the major race and ethnicity groups. From 2023 to 2024, earnings (in nominal terms) increased by 3.2 percent for Hispanics ($902), 3.4 for Whites ($1,177), 3.5 percent for Asians ($1,525), and 4.2 percent for Blacks ($959). (See table 11.) The women’s-to-men’s earnings ratio varied by race and ethnicity, with the highest ratio occurring among Blacks and Hispanics: White women earned 82.4 percent as much as White men; Black women earned 92.0 percent as much as Black men; Asian women earned 79.0 percent as much as Asian men; and Hispanic women earned 86.4 percent as much as Hispanic men.

Among workers ages 25 years and older, those with a bachelor’s degree or higher level of education had the largest over-the-year increase in median weekly earnings compared with other educational attainment groups. Earnings for workers who held a bachelor’s degree or higher ($1,692) rose by 5.2 percent from 2023 to 2024, while earnings for workers with less than a high school diploma ($738) rose by 4.2 percent. (See table 11.)

Among the major occupational groups, people employed full time in management, professional, and related occupations had the highest median weekly earnings in 2024: $1,879 for men and $1,388 for women. As has historically been the case, men ($834) and women ($713) employed in service occupations earned the least among the major occupational groups in 2024. (See table 12.)

Table 12. Median usual weekly earnings of full-time wage and salary workers by occupation and sex, annual averages, 2023–24
Occupation and sex	Number of workers (in thousands)		Median weekly earnings (in U.S. dollars)
Occupation and sex	2023	2024	2023	2024	Percent change, 2023–24
Total, 16 years and over	120,907	120,053	1,117	1,159	3.8
Management, professional, and related occupations	56,077	56,051	1,527	1,582	3.6
Management, business, and financial operations occupations	23,989	24,084	1,630	1,731	6.2
Professional and related occupations	32,088	31,967	1,458	1,504	3.2
Service occupations	15,818	15,707	721	758	5.1
Sales and office occupations	21,667	21,066	923	964	4.4
Sales and related occupations	9,148	8,895	1,001	1,046	4.5
Office and administrative support occupations	12,519	12,171	891	925	3.8
Natural resources, construction, and maintenance occupations	11,368	11,387	1,001	1,042	4.1
Farming, fishing, and forestry occupations	731	717	689	716	3.9
Construction and extraction occupations	6,517	6,518	985	1,017	3.2
Installation, maintenance, and repair occupations	4,120	4,152	1,092	1,150	5.3
Production, transportation, and material moving occupations	15,977	15,842	869	891	2.5
Production occupations	7,313	7,093	895	922	3.0
Transportation and material moving occupations	8,664	8,750	841	862	2.5
Men, 16 years and over	66,700	65,941	1,202	1,261	4.9
Management, professional, and related occupations	27,070	26,746	1,778	1,879	5.7
Management, business, and financial operations occupations	12,425	12,412	1,868	1,906	2.0
Professional and related occupations	14,645	14,334	1,736	1,828	5.3
Service occupations	7,672	7,549	801	834	4.1
Sales and office occupations	8,876	8,599	1,072	1,156	7.8
Sales and related occupations	5,099	5,021	1,196	1,264	5.7
Office and administrative support occupations	3,777	3,578	983	1,054	7.2
Natural resources, construction, and maintenance occupations	10,793	10,821	1,013	1,067	5.3
Farming, fishing, and forestry occupations	548	559	728	733	0.7
Construction and extraction occupations	6,277	6,284	991	1,022	3.1
Installation, maintenance, and repair occupations	3,968	3,978	1,104	1,163	5.3
Production, transportation, and material moving occupations	12,290	12,226	923	946	2.5
Production occupations	5,277	5,187	966	989	2.4
Transportation and material moving occupations	7,013	7,039	897	910	1.4
Women, 16 years and over	54,207	54,111	1,005	1,043	3.8
Management, professional, and related occupations	29,007	29,305	1,349	1,388	2.9
Management, business, and financial operations occupations	11,564	11,671	1,449	1,523	5.1
Professional and related occupations	17,443	17,634	1,278	1,319	3.2
Service occupations	8,146	8,158	676	713	5.5
Sales and office occupations	12,791	12,467	856	894	4.4
Sales and related occupations	4,049	3,873	830	880	6.0
Office and administrative support occupations	8,743	8,593	864	898	3.9
Natural resources, construction, and maintenance occupations	575	566	734	800	9.0
Farming, fishing, and forestry occupations	183	158	614	684	11.4
Construction and extraction occupations	240	235	795	853	7.3
Installation, maintenance, and repair occupations	152	174	875	922	5.4
Production, transportation, and material moving occupations	3,688	3,616	716	746	4.2
Production occupations	2,036	1,906	742	767	3.4
Transportation and material moving occupations	1,651	1,710	694	723	4.2
Note: Updated population controls are introduced annually with the release of January data. Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey.

Nearly 1 in 4 workers teleworked in 2024

In the fourth quarter of 2024, 36.7 million people teleworked at least some of the time, up from 32.5 million people in the fourth quarter of 2023.^¹⁵ (Data are not seasonally adjusted.) The telework rate—the number of people who teleworked or worked at home for pay as a percentage of people who were employed and at work—rose over the year, from 20.7 percent in the fourth quarter of 2023 to 23.4 percent in the fourth quarter of 2024. Women were more likely to telework than men (25.8 percent versus 21.2 percent in the fourth quarter of 2024), but the rates increased for both men and women in 2024.

Among those who teleworked in the fourth quarter of 2024, 46.5 percent teleworked for all of their work hours and 53.5 percent teleworked for some of their work hours. A year earlier, 49.3 percent teleworked for all of their work hours. Of the 4.2-million increase in the number of people who teleworked, about three-fourths of the change is attributable to people who teleworked for some, but not all, of their work hours.

The telework rate varies by occupation. Of the five major occupational groups, management, professional, and related occupations had the highest telework rate, at 38.6 percent in the fourth quarter of 2024. Within this group, 69.0 percent of people working in computer and mathematical occupations teleworked for at least some of their work hours; this was the highest telework rate of any detailed occupational group. People working in sales and office occupations had a telework rate of 25.3 percent, which was also higher than the overall rate across all occupations.

The other major occupational groups had much lower telework rates in 2024: service occupations, at 5.7 percent; natural resources, construction, and material moving occupations, at 3.9 percent; and production, transportation, and material moving occupations, at 2.9 percent. In 2024, telework rates tended to increase the most for occupations that already had a high incidence of telework.

Telework rates also differ substantially by educational attainment. Among people with a bachelor’s degree or higher, 40.9 percent teleworked or worked at home for pay in the fourth quarter of 2024, much higher than the rate of 4.0 percent for workers with less than a high school diploma. Over the year, telework rates increased for people with all levels of educational attainment. (See table 13.)

Table 13. People who teleworked or worked at home for pay by selected characteristics, quarterly averages, in thousands, not seasonally adjusted, 2023–24
Characteristic	Fourth quarter, 2023		Fourth quarter, 2024
Characteristic	Total	Telework Rate ^¹	Total	Telework Rate ^¹
Age and sex
Total, 16 years and over	32,490	20.7	36,691	23.4
16 to 24 years	1,273	6.5	1,399	7.3
25 to 54 years	23,315	23.1	26,321	26.0
55 years and over	7,901	21.8	8,972	24.6
Men, 16 years and over	15,740	18.9	17,643	21.2
16 to 24 years	556	5.7	678	7.1
25 to 54 years	11,216	20.8	12,514	23.2
55 years and over	3,968	20.4	4,451	22.7
Women, 16 years and over	16,750	22.8	19,048	25.8
16 to 24 years	717	7.3	721	7.6
25 to 54 years	12,099	25.8	13,807	29.2
55 years and over	3,934	23.4	4,521	26.7
Race and Hispanic or Latino ethnicity
White	24,721	20.6	28,164	23.5
Black or African American	3,267	16.2	3,603	17.9
Asian	3,494	32.4	3,638	33.4
Hispanic or Latino ethnicity	3,140	10.5	3,722	12.1
Disability status
With a disability	1,677	23.1	1,939	25.9
With no disability	30,813	20.6	34,752	23.3
Presence of children
With own children under 18	11,419	23.4	13,097	27.1
With no own children under 18	21,071	19.5	23,594	21.8
Educational attainment
Total, 25 years and over	31,217	22.8	35,292	25.6
Less than a high school diploma	225	2.6	333	4.0
High school graduates, no college ^²	2,596	7.8	3,052	9.2
Some college or associate degree	5,476	16.2	6,358	18.9
Bachelor's degree and higher ^³	22,920	37.3	25,550	40.9
Bachelor's degree only	13,477	35.9	14,931	39.2
Advanced degree	9,443	39.6	10,619	43.6
Major occupation
Management, professional, and related occupations	24,174	35.1	26,763	38.6
Service occupations	1,038	4.1	1,447	5.7
Sales and office occupations	6,489	22.2	7,396	25.3
Natural resources, construction, and maintenance occupations	321	2.3	535	3.9
Production, transportation, and material moving occupations	468	2.4	551	2.9
^¹ The telework rate is the number of people who telework or work at home for pay as a percentage of those who were employed and at work during the survey reference week. ^² Includes persons with a high school diploma or equivalent. ^³ Includes persons with bachelor's, master's, professional, and doctoral degrees. Note: Estimates for the race groups (White, Black or African American, and Asian) do not sum to totals because data are not presented for all races. Persons whose ethnicity is identified as Hispanic or Latino may be of any race. Data are not seasonally adjusted. Updated population controls are introduced annually with the release of January data. Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey.

Summary

In 2024, the U.S. labor market showed signs of continued moderation. Although the national unemployment rate remained low by historical standards, it increased during the first part of the year before leveling off. At 4.2 percent in the fourth quarter of 2024, the unemployment rate was up 0.4 percentage points from a year earlier. The increase in the unemployment rate in the first part of the year was a continuation of the modest upward movement in the rate that began in mid-2023. Although the labor force participation rate for workers ages 25 to 54 increased in 2024, the overall participation rate was little changed for the year. The employment–population ratio edged down during 2024, as employment growth did not keep pace with the growth in the population. Median usual weekly earnings, after accounting for inflation, edged up in 2024. The prevalence of telework continued to increase in 2024, reaching 23.4 percent in the fourth quarter of the year.

Appendix A: The CPS and the CES

The U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) produces two monthly employment series obtained from two different surveys: an estimate of total nonfarm jobs, derived from the Current Employment Statistics (CES) survey, also called the establishment or payroll survey; and an estimate of total civilian employment, derived from the Current Population Survey (CPS), also called the household survey. The two surveys use different definitions of employment, as well as different survey and estimation methods. The CES survey is a survey of employers that provides a measure of the number of payroll jobs in nonfarm industries. The CPS is a survey of households that provides a measure of employed people age 16 years and older in the civilian noninstitutional population.

Employment estimates from the CPS provide information about workers in both the agricultural and nonagricultural sectors and in all types of work arrangements: workers with wage and salary jobs (including employment in a private household), workers who are self-employed, and workers doing unpaid work for at least 15 hours per week in a business or farm operated by a family member. CES payroll employment estimates are restricted to nonagricultural wage and salary jobs and exclude private household workers. As a result, employment estimates from the CPS are higher than those from the CES survey. In the CPS, however, workers who hold multiple jobs (referred to as “multiple jobholders”) are counted only once, regardless of how many jobs these workers held during the survey reference period. By contrast, because the CES survey counts the number of jobs rather than the number of people, each nonfarm job is counted separately, even when two or more jobs are held by the same person.

The reference periods for the surveys also differ. In the CPS, the reference period is generally the calendar week that includes the 12th day of the month. In the CES survey, employers report the number of workers on their payrolls for the pay period that includes the 12th of the month. Because pay periods vary in length among employers and may be longer than 1 week, the CES employment estimates can reflect longer reference periods.

For more information on the two monthly employment measures, see “Comparing employment from the BLS household and payroll surveys,” Labor Force Statistics from the Current Population Survey (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics), https://www.bls.gov/web/empsit/ces_cps_trends.htm.

Appendix B: Adjustments to population estimates for the CPS

Updated population controls for the CPS are introduced annually with the publication of January data in The Employment Situation news release. The analysis presented in this article, which concentrates on labor market developments in 2024, takes into account the population controls introduced in January 2024, especially with respect to changes in the employment situation for major demographic groups. These controls reflected updated birth and death statistics, estimates of net international migration, and methodological improvements that were available at that time.

The January 2024 adjustment decreased the estimated size of the civilian noninstitutional population by 625,000, the civilian labor force by 299,000, employment by 270,000, and unemployment by 28,000. This adjustment did not affect the total unemployment rate, the labor force participation rate, or the employment–population ratio.

For additional information on these population adjustments and their effect on national labor force estimates, see “Adjustments to household survey population estimates in January 2024” (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, February 2024), https://www.bls.gov/cps/methods/population-controls/population-control-adjustments-2024.pdf.

It should be noted, however, that prior to the publication of this article, new population estimates were introduced by the U.S. Census Bureau in December 2024, largely reflecting updated methodology and new information about net immigration. These new population controls, which were incorporated by BLS into CPS estimates for January 2025, resulted in a very large upward shift in the civilian noninstitutional population age 16 and over, indicating that population growth since the 2020 Census was much larger than previously estimated. This upward shift in population weights resulted in substantially higher labor force, employment, and other levels from the CPS. The implication of these fresh population controls is that these labor force measures expanded more than is currently shown in official CPS estimates, particularly during the 2023–24 period.

To the extent possible, these changes were taken into account for the analysis of major CPS measures presented in this article. However, such adjustments are not available for major demographic groups, hence the reliance on January 2024 population controls for this part of the analysis, as mentioned previously. BLS and the Census Bureau are continuing to evaluate the extent to which these new population totals affect CPS estimates. With respect to the Census Bureau’s net international migration estimation methodology, it remains a work in progress. The Census Bureau will continue to develop methodological improvements and incorporate new information on net international migration into future vintage estimates of the population. Questions about the population estimates and the methodology used to develop them should be directed to the Census Bureau.

Suggested citation:

Emy Sok, Sean Smith, and John Evans, "Unemployment rate increases in the first half of 2024, before leveling off, while the labor force participation rate holds fairly steady," Monthly Labor Review, U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, September 2025, https://doi.org/10.21916/mlr.2025.17

Notes

^¹ Although data from the Current Population Survey (CPS) are published monthly, the data analyzed in this article are seasonally adjusted quarterly averages, and all over-the-year changes are comparisons of fourth quarter 2023 data with fourth quarter 2024 data, unless otherwise noted.

^² In the CPS, unemployed people are defined as those age 16 and older who were not employed during the survey reference week, had actively searched for work during the 4 weeks prior to the survey, and were available for work. People who were on temporary layoff and available for work are counted as unemployed and do not need to have searched for work.

^³ The U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) produces two sets of national employment estimates each month from two different surveys: an estimate of total nonfarm jobs, derived from the Current Employment Statistics (CES) survey, also known as the establishment or payroll survey, and an estimate of total civilian employment, based on the CPS, also called the household survey. The two surveys use different definitions of employment, as well as different survey and estimation methods. For more information on the two monthly employment measures, see appendix A and appendix B of this article and “Comparing employment from the BLS household and payroll surveys,” Labor Force Statistics from the Current Population Survey (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, last modified February 2025), https://www.bls.gov/web/empsit/ces_cps_trends.htm.

^⁴ For more information, see Connor Borkowski, Rifat Kaynas, and Megan Wilkins, “Unemployment rate inches up during 2023, labor force participation rises,” Monthly Labor Review, May 2024, https://doi.org/10.21916/mlr.2024.7.

^⁵ For more information, see Steven E. Haugen, “Measures of labor underutilization from the Current Population Survey,” Working Paper 424 (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, March 2009), https://www.bls.gov/osmr/research-papers/2009/pdf/ec090020.pdf. See also John E. Bregger and Steven E. Haugen, “BLS introduces new range of alternative unemployment measures,” Monthly Labor Review, October 1995, https://www.bls.gov/opub/mlr/1995/10/art3full.pdf.

^⁶ For more information, see “Research series on labor force status flows from the Current Population Survey,” Labor Force Statistics from the Current Population Survey (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, last modified October 8, 2015), www.bls.gov/cps/cps_flows.htm.

^⁷ For more information, see Steven F. Hipple, “People who are not in the labor force: why aren’t they working?,” Beyond the Numbers, December 2015, https://www.bls.gov/opub/btn/volume-4/people-who-are-not-in-the-labor-force-why-arent-they-working.htm. See also Hipple, “Why did labor force nonparticipation increase from 1999 to 2022?,” Monthly Labor Review, September 2024, https://doi.org/10.21916/mlr.2024.17.

^⁸ See Hipple, “People who are not in the labor force,” and Hipple, “Why did labor force nonparticipation increase from 1999 to 2022?”

^⁹ Using CPS data, BLS produces measures of people who are working part time for economic and noneconomic reasons. People who are at work part time for economic reasons, also referred to as involuntary part-time workers, include those who gave an economic reason when asked why they worked 1 to 34 hours during the reference week (generally, the week including the 12th of the month). Economic reasons include the following: slack work, unfavorable business conditions, inability to find full-time work, and seasonal declines in demand. People who usually work part time and were at work part time during the reference week must indicate that they wanted and were available for full-time work to be classified as part time for economic reasons.

^¹⁰ In the CPS, veterans are defined as men and women ages 18 and over who previously served on active duty in the U.S. Armed Forces and who were civilians at the time the survey was conducted. Veterans are categorized as having served in the following periods of service: (1) Gulf War-era II (September 2001 to the present), (2) Gulf War-era I (August 1990 to August 2001), (3) World War II (December 1941 to December 1946), (4) Korean War (July 1950 to January 1955), (5) Vietnam era (August 1964 to April 1975), and (6) other service periods (all other periods). Veterans who served in more than one wartime period are classified into only the most recent period. Veterans who served in both a wartime period and any other service period are classified in the wartime period.

^¹¹ Population controls for veterans are updated periodically and were last updated in January 2023. The latest population controls are from the 2020 Veteran Population Projection Model (VetPop2020). For more information, see “VetPop2020: A Brief Description” (U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs, accessed June 10, 2025), https://www.va.gov/vetdata/docs/Demographics/New_Vetpop_Model/VetPop2020_A_Brief_Description.pdf.

^¹² Foreign-born people are those who reside in the United States but were born outside the country or outside one of its outlying areas, such as Puerto Rico or Guam, to parents who were not U.S. citizens. Foreign-born people include legally admitted immigrants; refugees; temporary residents, such as students and temporary workers; and undocumented immigrants.

^¹³ Data are annual averages and are in current dollars. The CPS data on earnings represent earnings before taxes and other deductions and include any overtime pay, commissions, or tips typically received. For multiple jobholders, only earnings received at their main job are included. Earnings reported on a nonweekly basis are converted to a weekly equivalent. The term “usual” reflects each survey respondent’s understanding of the term. If the respondent asks for a definition of “usual,” interviewers are instructed to define the term as more than half the weeks worked during the past 4 or 5 months. Wage and salary workers are defined as those who receive wages, salaries, commissions, tips, payment in kind, or piece rates. This definition includes both public- and private-sector employees but excludes all self-employed people, regardless of whether their businesses are incorporated or unincorporated. Earnings comparisons made in this article are on a broad level and do not control for many factors that help explain earnings differences, such as job skills and responsibilities, work experience, and specialization. Finally, full-time workers are those who usually work 35 hours or more per week at their main job.

^¹⁴ The Consumer Price Index for All Urban Consumers (CPI-U) is used to convert current dollars to constant (1982–84) dollars.

^¹⁵ Beginning in October 2022, the CPS included questions about telework or work at home for pay; these questions differ from those specifically related to the COVID-19 pandemic that were asked of CPS respondents from May 2020 to September 2022. The new questions are designed to capture telework activity regardless of the reason for that work arrangement.