Education

Accountants and auditors typically need a bachelor's degree in accounting or a related field, such as business. Some employers prefer to hire applicants who have a master’s degree, either in accounting or in business administration with a concentration in accounting.

Some universities and colleges offer specialized programs for a bachelor’s or master’s degree, such as in accounting, forensic accounting, internal auditing, or tax accounting. In some cases, those with an associate’s degree, as well as bookkeepers, accounting, and auditing clerks who meet the education and experience requirements set by their employers, may get junior accounting positions and advance by showing their accounting skills on the job.

Students may gain practical experience through internships with public accounting or business firms.

Licenses, Certifications, and Registrations

Any accountant who files a report with the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) is required to be a licensed Certified Public Accountant (CPA). Other accountants choose to become a CPA to enhance their job prospects or to gain clients. Employers may pay the costs associated with the CPA exam.

CPAs are licensed by their state’s Board of Accountancy. Becoming a CPA requires passing a national exam and meeting other state requirements. All states require CPA candidates to complete 150 semester hours of college coursework to be licensed, which is 30 hours more than the usual 4-year bachelor’s degree. Many schools offer a 5-year combined bachelor’s and master’s degree to meet the 150-hour requirement, but a master’s degree is not required.

A few states allow a number of years of public accounting experience to substitute for a college degree.

Certification provides an advantage in the job market because it shows professional competence in a specialized field of accounting and auditing. Accountants and auditors seek certifications from a variety of professional societies. Information on certifications is available from CareerOneStop.

Advancement

Some top executives and financial managers have a background in accounting, internal auditing, or finance.

Entry-level public accountants may advance to senior positions as they gain experience and take on more responsibility. Those who excel may become supervisors, managers, or partners; open their own public accounting firm; or transfer to executive positions in management accounting or internal auditing in private firms.

Management accountants often start as cost accountants, junior internal auditors, or trainees for other accounting positions. As they rise through the organization, they may advance to become accounting managers, budget directors, chief cost accountants, or managers of internal auditing. Some become controllers, treasurers, financial vice presidents, chief financial officers, or corporation presidents.

Public accountants, management accountants, and internal auditors may move from one type of accounting and auditing to another. Public accountants often move into management accounting or internal auditing. Management accountants may become internal auditors, and internal auditors may become management accountants. However, it is less common for management accountants or internal auditors to move into public accounting.

Important Qualities

The following are examples of qualities that are important for these workers to perform their duties. For more information, visit the Employment Projections (EP) skills data page.

Analytical and critical-thinking skills. Accountants and auditors must be able to critically evaluate data, identify issues in documentation, and suggest solutions. For example, internal auditors might detect fraudulent use of funds, and public accountants may work to minimize tax liability.

Communication skills. Accountants and auditors must be able to listen to and discuss facts and concerns from clients, managers, and other stakeholders. They must also be able to discuss the results of their work both in meetings and in written reports.

Detail oriented. Accountants and auditors must pay attention to detail when compiling and examining documents.

Math skills. Accountants and auditors must be able to analyze, compare, and interpret facts and figures. They may use advanced math skills, such as calculus and statistical analysis, for these tasks.

Organizational skills. Strong organizational skills are important for accountants and auditors, who often work with a range of financial documents for a variety of clients.

Education

Although some people succeed in acting without getting a formal education, most actors acquire some formal preparation, such as through an acting conservatory or a college drama or theater arts program. Students can take classes in areas such as acting, movement, characterization, voice, and audition techniques to prepare for a career as an actor.

Performing arts high schools and theater companies also offer classes that may be helpful for aspiring actors.

Some actors may have a bachelor’s degree in a field such as performing arts, but a degree is not usually required.

Training

It often takes years of practice to develop the skills needed to become a successful actor. Many aspiring actors begin by participating in school plays or local theater productions. In television and film, actors usually start out in smaller roles or independent movies and work their way up to bigger productions.

Many actors continue to train throughout their careers, such as by participating in workshops, rehearsals, or mentoring by a drama coach.

Every role is different, and an actor may need to learn something new for each one. For example, a role may require learning how to sing or dance, or an actor may have to learn to speak with an accent or to play a musical instrument or sport.

Advancement

As an actor’s experience and reputation grows, he or she may work on bigger projects or in more prestigious venues. Some actors also may become producers and directors.

Important Qualities

The following are examples of qualities that are important for these workers to perform their duties. For more information, visit the Employment Projections (EP) skills data page.

Creativity. Actors interpret their characters’ feelings and motives to portray the characters in the most compelling way.

Interpersonal skills. Actors must develop effective relationships with directors, producers, cast, and crew. They also must be able to network with others to establish contacts within the industry.

Memorization skills. Actors memorize many lines before filming begins or a show opens.

Persistence. Actors may audition for many roles before getting a job. They must be able to accept rejections and keep going.

Physical stamina. Actors should be in good enough physical condition to endure the heat from stage or studio lights and the weight of heavy costumes or makeup. They may work many hours, including acting in more than one performance a day, and they must do so without getting overly tired.

Reading skills. Actors must read scripts and be able to interpret how a writer has developed their character.

Speaking skills. Actors—particularly stage actors—must say their lines clearly, project their voice, and pronounce words so that audiences understand them.

Education

Actuaries need a strong background in mathematics, statistics, and business. Typically, actuaries have an undergraduate degree in mathematics, business, actuarial science, or some other analytical field.

To become certified, students must complete coursework in subjects such as economics, statistics, and corporate finance. Coursework in computer science, especially programming languages, and the ability to use and develop spreadsheets, databases, and statistical analysis tools also is important.

Because the different types of practice areas include health, life, pension, and casualty, internships may be helpful for students deciding on which actuarial track to pursue.

Licenses, Certification, and Registrations

Actuaries typically complete a related certification program. Certification programs typically require candidates to complete coursework in economics, finance, and mathematical statistics while in college. Candidates also must pass a series of exams and take seminars on professionalism. Many employers expect prospective hires to have passed at least one or two of these certification exams before graduation. Information on certifications is available from CareerOneStop.

It may take up to 7 years for an actuary to earn the associate-level certification because of the lengthy preparation required. After becoming associates, actuaries typically take several more years to earn fellowship status. Many certifications have a continuing education requirement.

Fellowship certification is offered in five separate tracks: life and annuities, group and health benefits, retirement benefits, quantitative finance and investments, and corporate finance/enterprise risk management.

Pension actuaries typically must be licensed by the U.S. Department of Labor and U.S. Department of the Treasury’s Joint Board for the Enrollment of Actuaries. Licensed pension actuaries, known as enrolled actuaries, must meet certain experience requirements and pass exams.

Training

Entry-level actuaries typically start out as trainees. They are usually on teams with experienced actuaries who serve as mentors. Trainees begin work on basic tasks, such as compiling data, and take on more complex duties, such as conducting research and writing reports, as they gain experience. Trainees also may work in other departments, such as marketing, underwriting, and product development, to learn how actuaries fit into all aspects of a company.

Most employers support their actuaries throughout the certification process. For example, employers may pay the cost of exams and study materials or provide paid time to study. Employees may receive raises or bonuses for each exam that they pass.

Advancement

Advancement usually depends on job performance and the number of actuarial exams passed. For example, actuaries who achieve fellowship status often supervise the work of other actuaries and provide input to senior management. Actuaries with a broad knowledge of risk management and how it applies to business may advance to become top executives, such as chief risk officers or chief financial officers.

Important Qualities

The following are examples of qualities that are important for these workers to perform their duties. For more information, visit the Employment Projections (EP) skills data page.

Analytical skills. Actuaries identify patterns and trends in complex sets of data to determine the factors that affect certain types of events.

Communication skills. Actuaries must be able to explain complex technical matters to those without an actuarial background. They also must describe their work and recommendations clearly in written reports and memos.

Computer skills. Actuaries must know programming languages and be able to use and develop spreadsheets, databases, and statistical analysis tools.

Interpersonal skills. Actuaries serve as leaders and members of teams, so they must be able to listen to and collaborate with others.

Math skills. Actuaries quantify risk by using the principles of calculus, statistics, and probability.

Problem-solving skills. Actuaries identify risks and develop ways for businesses to manage those risks.

Education

Administrative services and facilities managers typically need a bachelor’s degree, often in business or a related field. However, some people enter the occupation with a high school diploma.

Work Experience

Administrative services and facilities managers must have related work experience that reflects managerial and leadership abilities. Facilities managers should have experience in business operations, project management, and building maintenance, such as from having worked as a general maintenance and repair worker or a cost estimator. Records and information managers should have administrative or business operations experience involving recordkeeping. Records and information managers in the legal field often must have experience as a paralegal or legal assistant.

Licenses, Certifications, and Registrations

Although it is not required, professional certification may give candidates an advantage when applying for jobs.

Several professional associations for administrative services and facilities managers offer certifications. Some associations offer certification that specializes in facility management. Information on certifications is available from CareerOneStop.

Important Qualities

The following are examples of qualities that are important for these workers to perform their duties. For more information, visit the Employment Projections (EP) skills data page.

Analytical skills. Administrative services and facilities managers must be able to review an organization’s procedures for ways to improve efficiency.

Communication skills. Administrative services and facilities managers often work with others. They must be able to convey ideas clearly, both orally and in writing.

Detail oriented. Administrative services and facilities managers must pay attention to details across a range of tasks, such as ensuring that the organization complies with building codes and managing the process of buying equipment.

Leadership skills. In directing workers and coordinating organizational duties, administrative services and facilities managers must be able to motivate employees and handle problems that arise.

Education

Adult basic and secondary education and ESL teachers in public schools typically need at least a bachelor’s degree. Some community colleges prefer to hire those with a master’s degree or graduate coursework in adult education or English as a Second Language (ESL).

Programs in adult education prepare prospective teachers to use effective strategies for adult learners, work with students from a variety of cultures and backgrounds, and teach adults with learning disabilities. Some programs allow these prospective teachers to specialize in adult basic education, secondary education, or ESL.

Prospective ESL teachers should take courses or training in linguistics and theories of how people learn second languages. Knowledge of a second language is not necessary to teach ESL, but it can be helpful.

Teacher education programs instruct prospective teachers in how to present information to students and how to work with students of varying abilities and backgrounds. Programs typically include an opportunity for student-teachers to work with a mentor and get experience in a classroom.

Adult basic and secondary education and ESL teachers may take professional development classes to improve their teaching skills and ensure that they keep up with research about teaching adults.

Licenses, Certifications, and Registrations

Adult basic and secondary education and ESL teachers who work in public schools must have a teaching certificate. Some states have certificates specifically for adult education. Other states require teachers to have a certificate in elementary or secondary education.

To obtain a license, adult basic and secondary education and ESL teachers typically need a bachelor’s degree and must complete a student-teaching program. For more information, contact the director of adult education for your state. Contact information is available from the U.S. Department of Education.

Important Qualities

The following are examples of qualities that are important for these workers to perform their duties. For more information, visit the Employment Projections (EP) skills data page.

Communication skills. Adult basic and secondary education and ESL teachers must collaborate with other teachers and program administrators. In addition, they must explain concepts in terms that students can understand.

Cultural sensitivity. Teachers work with students from a variety of cultural, educational, and economic backgrounds. They must be respectful of their students’ backgrounds and be understanding of their concerns.

Patience. Working with students of different abilities and backgrounds can be difficult. Teachers must be patient when students struggle to understand the material.

Resourcefulness. Teachers must be able to think on their feet and find ways to keep students engaged in learning. They may have to change their methods of instruction to address the different needs of their students.  

Education

Advertising, promotions, and marketing managers typically need a bachelor’s degree in a business field, such as marketing, or in a related field, such as communications. Relevant courses might include consumer behavior, market research, and art history.

Some employers prefer to hire candidates who have a master’s degree.

Advertising and marketing managers may begin as trainees or participate in mentoring or shadowing opportunities. In addition, completing an internship while in school may make candidates more attractive to prospective employers.

Work Experience in a Related Occupation

These managers typically need work experience in a related advertising, marketing, promotions, or sales occupation. For example, they may have worked as sales representatives, market research analysts, or public relations specialists.

Important Qualities

The following are examples of qualities that are important for these workers to perform their duties. For more information, visit the Employment Projections (EP) skills data page.

Analytical skills. Advertising, promotions, and marketing managers must be able to evaluate industry trends and determine the best strategies for their clients.

Communication skills. These workers must be able to collaborate with other managers and staff. They also must be persuasive in communicating with the public.

Creativity. Advertising, promotions, and marketing managers must be able to generate new and imaginative ideas.

Decision-making skills. These workers often must choose between competing advertising and marketing strategies put forward by staff.

Interpersonal skills. Managers must deal with a range of people and personalities in different roles, both inside and outside their organization.

Organizational skills. Advertising, promotions, and marketing managers must manage their time and budget efficiently while directing and motivating staff.

Education

A high school diploma is typically required for entry-level advertising sales positions. However, some employers prefer or require a college degree. Courses in marketing, communications, business, and advertising are helpful.

Training

Advertising sales agents usually receive training on the job. For example, a newly hired sales agent might work alongside an experienced sales agent who coaches and observes them as they make sales calls and contact clients. Employers also may provide formal training sessions, such as for agents who sell to a specialized market segment.

Advancement

Agents with leadership experience and a strong sales record may advance to supervisory and managerial positions, such as sales manager, account executive, and vice president of sales. Successful advertising sales agents also may advance to positions in other areas, such as corporate sales.

Important Qualities

The following are examples of qualities that are important for these workers to perform their duties. For more information, visit the Employment Projections (EP) skills data page.

Communication skills. Advertising sales agents must be persuasive during sales calls. In addition, they should listen to the client’s desires and concerns so they are able to recommend an appropriate advertising package.

Customer-service skills. Advertising sales agents must be responsive to clients’ needs and concerns.

Initiative. Advertising sales agents must actively seek new clients, keep in touch with current clients, and expand their client base, in order to meet sales quotas.

Interpersonal skills. Advertising sales agents must be able to establish a good rapport with both prospective and existing clients.

Organizational skills. Agents work with many clients, each of whom may be at a different stage in the sales process. Agents must be well organized to keep track of their clients and potential clients.

Self-confidence. Advertising sales agents should be confident when calling potential clients (making cold calls). Because potential clients are often unwilling to commit on a first call, agents frequently must continue making sales calls, even if rejected at first.

Education

High school students interested in becoming an aerospace engineering and operations technologist or technician should take classes in math, science, and, if available, drafting and information technology.

Aerospace engineering and operations technologists and technicians typically need an associate’s degree in engineering technology or a related field. Some employers consider candidates who have a high school diploma or have completed a certificate program. Associate’s degree and certificate programs are available at community colleges or vocational–technical schools.

Licenses, Certifications, and Registrations

Although not required for the job, certifications may demonstrate specific knowledge or professional expertise. Information on certifications is available from CareerOneStop.

Important Qualities

The following are examples of qualities that are important for these workers to perform their duties. For more information, visit the Employment Projections (EP) skills data page.

Communication skills. Aerospace engineering and operations technologists and technicians must be able to follow instructions from aerospace engineers. They also need to clearly convey problems to their supervisors.

Detail oriented. Aerospace engineering and operations technologists and technicians take precise measurements needed by aerospace engineers. In addition, they must keep accurate records of these measurements.

Interpersonal skills. Aerospace engineering and operations technologists and technicians must be able to work well with others. They interact with people from other divisions, businesses, and governments.

Math skills. Aerospace engineering and operations technologists and technicians use mathematics for measurement, analysis, design, and troubleshooting tasks.

Mechanical skills. Aerospace engineering and operations technologists and technicians assist aerospace engineers by building what the engineers design. They need technical skills to guide processes from design to production.

Problem-solving skills. Aerospace engineering and operations technologists and technicians help aerospace engineers troubleshoot design issues. They must be able to help evaluate system capabilities, formulate questions, and then find the answers.

Education

Aerospace engineers typically need a bachelor's degree in engineering or a related field. High school students interested in studying aerospace engineering should take classes in chemistry, physics, and math.

Bachelor’s degree programs in engineering usually include classroom, laboratory, and field courses in subjects such as stability and control, structures, and mechanics.

College students may have an opportunity to participate in cooperative education programs or internships. Through partnership with local businesses, these programs allow students to gain practical experience while they complete their education.

Some colleges and universities offer a 5-year program that leads to both a bachelor’s degree and a master’s degree. A graduate degree may allow an engineer to work as an instructor at a university or to do research and development.

Employers may prefer to hire graduates of aerospace engineering programs accredited by a professional association. A degree from an accredited program is usually required to become licensed.

Licenses, Certifications, and Registrations

Licensure is not required for entry-level aerospace engineer positions. Experienced engineers may obtain a Professional Engineering (PE) license, which allows them to oversee the work of other engineers, sign off on projects, and provide services directly to the public.

State licensure generally requires a bachelor’s or higher degree from an accredited engineering program, a passing score on the Fundamentals of Engineering (FE) exam, several years of relevant work experience, and a passing score on the PE exam.

Each state issues its own license. Most states recognize licensure from other states, as long as the licensing state’s requirements meet or exceed their own licensure requirements. Several states require continuing education for engineers to keep their licenses. Information on state licensing board requirements is available from CareerOneStop.

Advancement

Aerospace engineers who gain experience or who have additional education or credentials may advance into technical or supervisory positions. Those with leadership skills also may become engineering managers or project management specialists.

Important Qualities

The following are examples of qualities that are important for these workers to perform their duties. For more information, visit the Employment Projections (EP) skills data page.

Analytical skills. Aerospace engineers must be able to evaluate project design elements and propose improvements, if necessary.

Business skills. Meeting federal standards in aerospace engineering requires business knowledge, including commercial law. Project management or systems engineering skills also may be useful.

Communication skills. Aerospace engineers must be able to explain, both orally and in writing, the details of their designs. They may need to convey information to a variety of audiences, including nontechnical ones.

Interpersonal skills. Aerospace engineers often work on teams and must be able to interact with other types of engineers and with nontechnical team members.

Math skills. Aerospace engineers use calculus, trigonometry, and other math in their analysis, design, and troubleshooting work.

Problem-solving skills. Aerospace engineers upgrade designs and troubleshoot problems to improve aircraft, such as for increased fuel efficiency or safety.

Education

High school students interested in becoming an agricultural or food science technician should take science and math classes such as biology, chemistry, physics, and statistics.

Although entry requirements vary, agricultural and food science technicians typically need an associate’s degree. Some agricultural and food science technicians enter the occupation with a high school diploma or the equivalent and related work experience. Others may need a bachelor’s degree.

Common fields of degree include biology, a physical science such as chemistry, and agriculture. Students may choose to major in a specific concentration within agriculture, such as animal, crop, or food science.

Students may pursue internships and other opportunities to gain practical experience while still in school.

Work Experience in a Related Occupation

Workers who enter the occupation with a high school diploma or the equivalent may need experience in a related occupation that has helped them develop knowledge of agriculture or manufacturing processes. Examples of related occupations include food and tobacco processing workers and agricultural workers.

Training

Agricultural and food science technicians typically receive training on the job after they are hired. For example, they may work alongside a more experienced technician or scientist while learning how to collect samples, operate equipment, and do other tasks. Training also might cover topics such as production techniques and sanitation procedures.

Important Qualities

The following are examples of qualities that are important for these workers to perform their duties. For more information, visit the Employment Projections (EP) skills data page.

Analytical skills. Agricultural and food science technicians must synthesize information from a variety of test results and samples.

Communication skills. Agricultural and food science technicians must understand and give clear instructions, convey information in presentations or reports, and, occasionally, write reports.

Decision-making skills. Agricultural and food science technicians use reasoning and judgment to reach conclusions, such as for determining how to improve food quality.

Detail oriented. Agricultural and food science technicians must conduct and record observations and measurements with precision and accuracy.

Interpersonal skills. Agricultural and food science technicians collaborate with others, including scientists and agricultural and food processing workers.

Physical stamina. Agricultural and food science technicians may need to stand for long periods, lift objects, and perform physical labor.

Education

Undergraduate coursework for agricultural and food scientists varies by specialty, but common fields of degree include biology, physical science, and agriculture. Students may choose to major in a specific concentration within agriculture, such as animal, crop, or food science. Degrees in related sciences, such as biology, chemistry, and physics, or in a related engineering specialty also may qualify people for many agricultural science jobs. Every state has at least one land-grant college that offers agricultural science degrees. Many other colleges and universities also offer agricultural science degrees or related courses.

Many people with bachelor’s degrees in agricultural sciences find work in related jobs rather than becoming an agricultural or food scientist. For example, a bachelor’s degree in agricultural science is a useful background for farming, ranching, agricultural inspection, farm credit institutions, or other companies in the agrifood system. Combined with coursework in business, agricultural and food science could be a good background for managerial jobs in farm-related or ranch-related businesses. For more information, see the profile on farmers, ranchers, and other agricultural managers.

Some agricultural and food scientists earn advanced degrees, and a master’s or doctoral degree may be required for some jobs. For example, a Ph.D. may be required for some research positions in specialized topics. Advanced research topics include genetics, animal reproduction, agronomy, and biotechnology, among others. Advanced coursework also emphasizes statistical analysis and experiment design, which are important as Ph.D. candidates begin their research and work with big datasets. During graduate school, there is additional emphasis on lab work and original research, in which prospective agricultural and food scientists conduct experiments and sometimes supervise undergraduates.

Licenses, Certifications, and Registrations

Some agricultural and food scientists may need a license, particularly those who plan to work in plant and soil sciences. Licensing requirements vary by state but generally include holding a bachelor’s degree with a certain number of credit hours in either plant or soil science, working under a licensed scientist for a certain number of years, and passing an exam. Licensed plant and soil scientists may require additional education credits or training every few years to maintain their licenses. Information on state licensing board requirements is available from CareerOneStop. 

Certifications are generally not required for agriculture and food scientists, but they can be useful in advancing one’s career. Information on certifications is available from CareerOneStop.

Other Experience

Internships are highly recommended for prospective agricultural and food scientists. These internships may lead to opportunities for full-time employment and provide students with hands-on experience.

Important Qualities

The following are examples of qualities that are important for these workers to perform their duties. For more information, visit the Employment Projections (EP) skills data page.

Communication skills. Agricultural and food scientists must explain their studies both verbally and in writing, including what they were trying to learn, the methods they used, what they found, and what they think the implications of their findings are. They must also communicate well when working with others, including technicians and student assistants.

Critical-thinking skills. Agricultural and food scientists must use their expertise to determine the best way to answer a specific research question.

Data-analysis skills. Agricultural and food scientists collect data using a variety of methods, including quantitative surveys. They must then apply standard data analysis techniques to understand the data and get the answers to the questions they are studying.

Math skills. Agricultural and food scientists must have a sound grasp of mathematical concepts.

Detail-oriented skills. Agricultural and food scientists conduct experiments that require precise observation of samples and other data. Any mistake could lead to inconclusive or inaccurate results.

Education

High school students who are interested in studying agricultural engineering should take classes in math and science. College students take courses in calculus, physics, biology, and chemistry. They also may take courses in business, public policy, and economics.

Entry-level jobs in agricultural engineering typically require a bachelor’s degree in engineering, including agricultural engineering or biological engineering. College students may gain practical experience through internships or from working on projects for engineering competitions, in which teams of students design equipment and attempt to solve real problems.

Employers may prefer to hire candidates who have graduated from programs accredited by a professional association.

Licenses, Certifications, and Registrations

Licensure is not required for entry-level positions as an agricultural engineer. A Professional Engineering (PE) license, which allows for higher levels of leadership and independence, can be acquired later in one’s career. Licensed engineers are called professional engineers (PEs). A PE can oversee the work of other engineers, sign off on projects, and provide services directly to the public. State licensure generally requires

• A degree from an accredited engineering program
• A passing score on the Fundamentals of Engineering (FE) exam
• Relevant work experience, typically at least 4 years
• A passing score on the Professional Engineering (PE) exam

The initial FE exam can be taken after one earns a bachelor’s degree. Engineers who pass this exam are commonly called engineers in training (EITs) or engineer interns (EIs). After meeting work experience requirements, EITs and EIs can take the second exam, called the Principles and Practice of Engineering (PE).

Each state issues its own licenses. Most states recognize licensure from other states, as long as the licensing state’s requirements meet or exceed their own licensure requirements. Several states require engineers to take continuing education to keep their licenses. For licensing requirements, check with your state’s licensing board. Information on state licensing board requirements is available from CareerOneStop.

Important Qualities

The following are examples of qualities that are important for these workers to perform their duties. For more information, visit the Employment Projections (EP) skills data page.

Analytical skills. Agricultural engineers must analyze the needs of complex systems that involve workers, crops, animals, machinery and equipment, and the environment.

Communication skills. Agricultural engineers must understand the needs of clients, workers, and others working on a project. Furthermore, they must communicate their thoughts about systems and about solutions to any problems they have been working on.

Math skills. Agricultural engineers use calculus, trigonometry, and other advanced mathematical disciplines for analysis, design, and troubleshooting.

Problem-solving skills. Agricultural engineers’ main role is to solve problems found in agricultural production. Goals may include designing safer equipment for food processing or reducing erosion. To solve these problems, agricultural engineers must creatively apply the principles of engineering.

Advancement

New engineers usually work under the supervision of experienced engineers. As they gain knowledge and experience, beginning engineers move to more difficult projects and increase their independence in developing designs, solving problems, and making decisions.

With experience, agricultural engineers may advance to supervise a team of engineers and technicians. Some advance to become engineering managers. Agricultural engineers who become sales engineers use their engineering background to discuss a product’s technical aspects with potential buyers and to help in product planning, installation, and use.

Engineers who have a master’s degree or a Ph.D. are more likely to be involved in research and development activities, and may become postsecondary teachers.

Education

Agricultural workers typically need no formal educational credential. However, animal breeders typically need a high school diploma, and some jobs require postsecondary education.

Training

Many agricultural workers receive short-term on-the-job training of up to 1 month. Employers instruct them on how to use simple farming tools and complex machinery while following safety procedures. Agricultural equipment operators may need more extensive training before being allowed to operate expensive farming equipment.

Licenses, Certifications, and Registrations

Some agricultural workers, especially those who operate equipment, need a valid driver’s license. Agricultural workers who handle pesticides might need a pesticide applicator license. And in a few states, certain types of animal breeders must be licensed. Check with your state licensing boards for more information. 

Important Qualities

The following are examples of qualities that are important for these workers to perform their duties. For more information, visit the Employment Projections (EP) skills data page.

Dexterity. Agricultural workers need excellent hand-eye coordination to harvest crops and operate farm machinery.

Listening skills. Agricultural workers must listen carefully to ensure that they understand instructions from farmers and other agricultural managers and supervisors.

Mechanical skills. Agricultural workers must be able to operate complex farm machinery. They also occasionally do routine maintenance on the equipment.

Physical stamina. Agricultural workers must have physical endurance because they do laborious tasks repeatedly.

Physical strength. Agricultural workers must be strong enough to lift heavy objects, including tools and crops.

Other Experience

Animal breeders sometimes need work experience interacting with livestock. Ranch workers may transition into animal breeding after they become more familiar with animals and learn how to handle them.

Some agricultural equipment operators might need work experience on a farm or operating heavy equipment.

Advancement

Agricultural workers may advance to crew leader or other supervisory positions. The ability to speak both English and Spanish is helpful for agricultural supervisors.

Some agricultural workers aspire to become farmers, ranchers, or agricultural managers or to own their own farms and ranches. Knowledge of produce and livestock may provide an excellent background for becoming buyers or purchasing agents of farm products. Those who earn a college degree in agricultural science could become agricultural or food scientists.

Education and Training

Aircraft mechanics and service technicians typically enter the occupation after attending an FAA-approved aviation maintenance technician program. These programs award a certificate of completion that the FAA recognizes as an alternative to the experience requirements stated in regulations. The programs also grant certificate holders the right to take the relevant FAA exams. Programs that are affiliated with community colleges offer students the opportunity to earn an associate’s degree.

Some aircraft mechanics and service technicians enter the occupation with a high school diploma or the equivalent. They train on the job or in the military to learn their skills and to be able to pass the FAA exams.

Aviation maintenance personnel who are not certified by the FAA work under supervision of a certified airframe and powerplant (A&P) mechanic until they have enough experience to sit for the FAA exams.

Licenses, Certifications, and Registrations

The FAA requires aircraft maintenance to be done either by a certified mechanic with the appropriate ratings or authorizations or by someone working under the supervision of such a mechanic.

The FAA offers separate certificates for bodywork (airframe mechanics) and engine work (powerplant mechanics), but employers may prefer to hire mechanics who have both ratings (A&P). The A&P ratings generally certify that aviation mechanics meet basic knowledge and ability standards.

Mechanics must meet minimum requirements, including for age and experience, to qualify for either the A rating, the P rating, or the A&P rating. Completion of a program at an FAA-approved aviation maintenance technician school can substitute for the experience requirement and expedite the time for becoming eligible to take the FAA exams.

The Inspection Authorization (IA) is available to A&P-certified mechanics who meet experience and other requirements. These mechanics are able to review and approve many major repairs and alterations.

Avionics technicians may be certified by their employer for the specific aircraft work they perform. Technicians may get optional certification to substitute for some experience. They also may hold the airframe rating to work on an aircraft’s electronic and flight instrument systems. Information on certifications is available from CareerOneStop.

Avionics technicians who work on communications equipment may need a license issued by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC). Information on state licensing board requirements is available from CareerOneStop.

Advancement

As aircraft mechanics and service technicians gain experience, they might advance to become lead mechanics, lead inspectors, or shop supervisors. Opportunities to advance may be best for those who have an inspection authorization (IA). Mechanics with broad experience in maintenance and repair may become inspectors or examiners for the FAA.

Important Qualities

The following are examples of qualities that are important for these workers to perform their duties. For more information, visit the Employment Projections (EP) skills data page.

Detail oriented. Mechanics and technicians must adjust aircraft parts to exact specifications. For example, they often use precision tools to tighten wheel bolts to a specified tension.

Dexterity. Mechanics and technicians need to coordinate the movement of their fingers and hands in order to grasp, manipulate, or assemble parts.

Mechanical skills. Mechanics and technicians must be able to understand and interpret manufacturer instructions to repair, replace, and assemble aircraft components.

Observational skills. Mechanics and technicians must recognize engine noises, read gauges, and collect other information to determine whether an aircraft’s systems are working properly.

Physical strength. Mechanics and technicians may carry or move heavy equipment or aircraft parts, climb on airplanes, balance, and reach without falling.

Problem-solving skills. Mechanics and technicians must be able to diagnose problems with aircraft equipment and systems to determine the best way to repair them.

Airline and commercial pilots also must have specific certificates and ratings from the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA).

Education

Airline pilots typically need a bachelor’s degree in any field, including transportation, engineering, or business. They also complete flight training with independent FAA-certified flight instructors or at schools that offer flight training.

Commercial pilots typically complete flight training, and some employers require or prefer that they have a degree.

The FAA certifies hundreds of civilian flight schools, which range from small fixed base operators (FBO) to state universities. Some colleges and universities offer pilot training as part of a 2- or 4-year aviation degree.

Training

Airline and commercial pilots who are newly hired by airlines or on-demand air services companies undergo on-the-job training in accordance with federal regulations. This training usually includes several weeks of ground school and flight training. Various types of ratings for specific aircraft, such as the Boeing 737 or Cessna Citation, typically are acquired through employer-based training and generally are earned by pilots who have at least a commercial pilot certificate.

Pilots also must maintain their experience in performing certain maneuvers. This requirement means that pilots must perform specific maneuvers and procedures a given number of times within a specified amount of time. Pilots also must undergo periodic training and medical examinations, generally every year or every other year.

Work Experience in a Related Occupation

Airline pilots typically need work experience as a commercial or military pilot.  

To get a job with a major or regional airline, pilots need extensive flight experience. Some pilots work as flight instructors or on-demand charter pilots, positions that usually require less experience than airline jobs require, to help build enough flying hours so that they can apply to the airlines.

Military pilots may transfer to civilian aviation and apply directly to airlines to become airline pilots.

Licenses, Certifications, and Registrations

Those who are seeking a career as a professional pilot must meet FAA requirements. Pilots typically get their FAA-issued certificates and ratings in the following order:

• Student pilot certificate
• Private pilot certificate
• Instrument rating
• Commercial pilot certificate
• Multi-engine rating
• Airline transport pilot certificate

Each certificate and rating requires that pilots pass a knowledge test on the ground and a practical flying exam, usually called a check ride, in an appropriate aircraft. In addition to earning these credentials, many pilots get a flight instructor certificate after they get their commercial pilot certificate. The flight instructor certificate helps them build flight time and experience quickly and at less personal expense.

Commercial pilot certificate. To qualify for a commercial pilot certificate, applicants must meet age and flight-hour requirements. Student pilots use a logbook and keep detailed records of their flight time, which must be endorsed by a flight instructor. Federal regulations specify the types and quantities of flight experience and knowledge needed.

Applicants must pass the appropriate medical exam, meet all of the detailed flight experience and knowledge requirements, and pass a written exam and a practical flight exam in order to get a commercial pilot certificate. The medical exam confirms that the pilot’s vision is correctable to 20/20 and that no physical or mental conditions exist that could impair the pilot’s performance.

Commercial pilots must hold an instrument rating if they want to carry passengers for pay more than 50 miles from the point of origin of their flight, or at night.

Instrument rating. Pilots who earn an instrument rating can fly during periods of low visibility, also known as instrument meteorological conditions, or IMC. They may qualify for this rating by having at least 40 hours of instrument flight experience and 50 hours of cross-country flight time as pilot in command, and by meeting other requirements detailed in the federal regulations.

Airline transport pilot (ATP) certificate. All pilot crews of a scheduled commercial airliner must have ATP certificates. To earn the ATP certificate, applicants must meet certain federal requirements, such as for age, hours of flight, and written and practical exams. A commercial pilot certificate is a prerequisite for the ATP. Airline pilots usually maintain one or more aircraft-type ratings, which allow them to fly aircraft that require specific training, depending on the requirements of their particular airline.

Pilots must pass periodic physical and practical flight examinations to be able to perform the duties granted by their certificate.

Advancement

Commercial pilots may advance to airline pilots after completing a degree, accruing required flight time, and obtaining an ATP certificate.

Advancement for airline pilots depends on a system of seniority outlined in collective bargaining contracts.

Important Qualities

The following are examples of qualities that are important for these workers to perform their duties. For more information, visit the Employment Projections (EP) skills data page.

Communication skills. Pilots must speak clearly when conveying information to air traffic controllers and other crew members. They must also listen carefully for instructions.

Observational skills. Pilots regularly watch over screens, gauges, and dials to make sure that all systems are in working order. They also need to maintain situational awareness by looking for other aircraft or obstacles. Pilots must be able to see clearly, be able to judge the distance between objects, and possess good color vision.

Problem-solving skills. Pilots must be able to identify complex problems and figure out appropriate solutions. When a plane encounters turbulence, for example, pilots assess the weather conditions and request a change in route or altitude from air traffic control.

Quick reaction time. Pilots must respond quickly, and with good judgment, to any impending danger.

In addition, prospective air traffic controllers must be U.S. citizens and must pass a medical evaluation, background check, and FAA preemployment tests, including the Air Traffic Controller Specialists Skills Assessment Battery (ATSA). They also must complete a training course at the FAA Academy and apply before the FAA's age cutoff.

Once hired, controllers typically complete on-the-job training that lasts more than 12 months. They also must pass a physical exam each year, a job performance exam twice a year, and periodic drug screenings.

Education

Air traffic controllers typically need an associate's or a bachelor's degree. To qualify with an associate's degree, candidates must complete their studies in an AT-CTI program. A bachelor's degree may be in any field, including transportation, business, or engineering.

The FAA sets guidelines for schools that offer the AT-CTI program. AT-CTI schools offer 2- or 4-year degrees that are designed to prepare students for a career in air traffic control. The curriculum is not standardized, but courses focus on subjects that are fundamental to aviation, including airspace, clearances, chart reading, and federal regulations.