Education

Most accountant and auditor positions require at least a bachelor's degree in accounting or a related field. Some employers prefer to hire applicants who have a master's degree, either in accounting or in business administration with a concentration in accounting.

A few universities and colleges offer specialized programs, such as a bachelor’s degree in internal auditing. In some cases, graduates of community colleges, as well as bookkeepers and accounting clerks who meet the education and experience requirements set by their employers, get junior accounting positions and advance to accountant positions by showing their accounting skills on the job.

Work experience is important for getting a job, and most states require experience before an accountant can apply for a CPA license. Many colleges help students gain practical experience through summer or part-time internships with public accounting or business firms.

Licenses

Every accountant filing a report with the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) is required by law to be a Certified Public Accountant (CPA). Many other accountants choose to become a CPA to enhance their job prospects or to gain clients.

CPAs are licensed by their state’s Board of Accountancy. Becoming a CPA requires passing a national exam and meeting other state requirements.

As of 2012, 46 states and the District of Columbia required CPA candidates to complete 150 semester hours of college coursework, which is 30 hours more than the usual 4-year bachelor's degree. Many schools offer a 5-year combined bachelor's and master's degree to meet the 150-hour requirement, but a master's degree is not required.

A few states allow a number of years of public accounting experience to substitute for a college degree.

All states use the four-part Uniform CPA Examination from the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants. Candidates do not have to pass all four parts at once, but most states require that they pass all four parts within 18 months of passing their first part.

Almost all states require CPAs to take continuing education to keep their license.

Certification

Certification provides an advantage in the job market because it shows professional competence in a specialized field of accounting and auditing. Accountants and auditors seek certifications from a variety of professional societies. Some of the most common certifications are listed below:

The Institute of Management Accountants offers the Certified Management Accountant (CMA) upon applicants who complete a bachelor's degree. Applicants must have worked at least 2 years in management accounting, pass a two-part exam, agree to meet continuing education requirements, and comply with standards of professional conduct. The exam covers areas such as financial statement analysis, working-capital policy, capital structure, valuation issues, and risk management. 

The Institute of Internal Auditors (IIA) offers the Certified Internal Auditor (CIA) to graduates from accredited colleges and universities who have worked for 2 years as internal auditors and have passed a four-part exam. The IIA also offers the Certified in Control Self-Assessment (CCSA), Certified Government Auditing Professional (CGAP), and Certified Financial Services Auditor (CFSA) to those who pass the exams and meet educational and experience requirements.

ISACA offers the Certified Information Systems Auditor (CISA) to candidates who pass an exam and have 5 years of experience auditing information systems. Information systems experience, financial or operational auditing experience, or related college credit hours can be substituted for up to 2 years of experience in information systems auditing, control, or security.

For accountants with a CPA, the American Institute of CPAs (AICPA) offers the option to receive any or all of the Accredited in Business Valuation (ABV), Certified Information Technology Professional (CITP), or Personal Financial Specialist (PFS) certifications. The business valuation certification requires a written exam and completion of at least 10 business valuation projects that demonstrate a candidate's experience and competence. The technology certification requires the achievement of a set number of points awarded for business technology experience and education. Candidates for the personal financial specialist certification also must achieve a certain numbers of points based on experience and education, pass a written exam, and submit references.

Advancement

Some top executives have a background in accounting, internal auditing, or finance. For more information, see the profile on top executives.

Beginning public accountants often advance to positions with more responsibility in 1 or 2 years and to senior positions within another few years. Those who excel may become supervisors, managers, or partners; open their own public accounting firm; or transfer to executive positions in management accounting or internal auditing in private firms.

Management accountants often start as cost accountants, junior internal auditors, or trainees for other accounting positions. As they rise through the organization, they may advance to accounting manager, chief cost accountant, budget director, or manager of internal auditing. Some become controllers, treasurers, financial vice presidents, chief financial officers, or corporation presidents.

Public accountants, management accountants, and internal auditors can move from one aspect of accounting and auditing to another. Public accountants often move into management accounting or internal auditing. Management accountants may become internal auditors, and internal auditors may become management accountants. However, it is less common for management accountants or internal auditors to move into public accounting.

Important Qualities

Analytical skills. Accountants and auditors must be able to identify issues in documentation and suggest solutions. For example, public accountants use analytical skills in their work to minimize tax liability, and internal auditors do so when identifying fraudulent use of funds.  

Communication skills. Accountants and auditors must be able to listen carefully to facts and concerns from clients, managers, and others. They must also be able to discuss the results of their work in both meetings and written reports.

Detail oriented. Accountants and auditors must pay attention to detail when compiling and examining documentation.

Math skills. Accountants must be able to analyze, compare, and interpret facts and figures, although complex math skills are not necessary.

Organizational skills. Strong organizational skills are important for accountants and auditors who often work with a range of financial documents for a variety of clients.

Education

Although some people succeed in acting without getting a formal education, most actors acquire some formal training through an acting conservatory or a university drama or theater arts program. Students can take college classes in drama or filmmaking to prepare for a career as an actor. Classes in dance or music may help as well. Actors who do not get a college degree may take acting or film classes to learn their craft. Community colleges, acting conservatories, and private film schools offer these classes. Many community theaters also have education programs. A bachelor’s of arts degree in theater is becoming more common among stage actors.

Training

It takes many years of practice to develop the skills needed to be successful, and actors never truly finish training. They work to improve their acting skills throughout their career. Many actors continue to train through workshops or mentoring by a drama coach.

Every role is different, and an actor may need to learn something new each time. For example, a role may require learning how to sing or dance, or an actor may have to learn a foreign accent or how to play an instrument or a sport.

Many aspiring actors participate in high school, college, and local community plays. In television and film, actors usually start out in smaller roles or independent movies and work their way up to bigger productions.

Advancement

As an actor’s reputation grows, he or she may work on bigger projects or in more prestigious venues. Some actors become producers or directors. For more information, see the profile on producers and directors.

Important Qualities

Creativity. Actors interpret their characters’ feelings and motives to portray the characters in the most believable way.

Memorization skills. Actors memorize many lines before filming begins or a show opens. Television actors often appear on camera and have little time to memorize scripts, which can be revised frequently or written moments before filming.

Persistence. Actors may audition for many roles before getting a job. They must be able to take rejection and keep going.

Physical stamina. Actors should be in good enough physical condition to endure heat from stage or studio lights and the weight of heavy costumes. They may work long hours, including more than one performance a day, and they must do so without getting overly tired.

Reading skills. When looking for a new role, actors read many scripts and must be able to interpret how a writer has described their character.

Speaking skills. Actors, particularly stage actors, must be able to say their lines clearly, project their voice, and pronounce words so that the audience understands them.

In addition to these qualities, actors usually must be physically coordinated to perform predetermined, sometimes complex movements with other actors to complete a scene.

Education

Actuaries must have a strong background in mathematics, statistics, and business. Typically, an actuary has an undergraduate degree in mathematics, statistics, business, or actuarial science.

To become certified professionals, students must complete coursework in economics, applied statistics, and corporate finance. Coursework in calculus and business, such as accounting and management, are essential for students as well.

Students should also take classes outside of mathematics and business to prepare them for a career as an actuary. Coursework in computer science, especially programming languages and the ability to use and develop spreadsheets, databases, and statistical analysis tools, is valuable. Classes in writing and public speaking will improve students’ ability to communicate in the business world.

Many students take internships, which are a valuable way to gain experience outside of the classroom while they are still in school. Many employers offer their interns permanent jobs after they graduate.

An increasing number of employers expect students to have passed at least one of the initial actuary exams needed for professional certification (as described in the certification section) before graduation.

Certification

Two professional societies—the Casualty Actuarial Society (CAS) and the Society of Actuaries (SOA)—sponsor programs leading to full professional status. The CAS and SOA offer two levels of certification: associate and fellowship.

The CAS certifies actuaries who work in the property and casualty field, which includes automobile, homeowners’, medical malpractice, and workers’ compensation insurance.

The SOA certifies actuaries who work in life insurance, health insurance, retirement benefits, investments, and finance. Most actuaries in the United States are certified by the SOA.

The main requirement for associate certification in each society is the successful completion of exams. The SOA requires that candidates pass five exams for associate (ASA) certification. The CAS requires that candidates pass seven exams for associate (ACAS) certification. In addition, both CAS and SOA require that candidates take seminars on professionalism. Both societies have mandatory e-learning courses for candidates.

It typically takes 4 to 6 years for an actuary to get an ACAS or an ASA certification because each exam requires hundreds of hours of study and months of preparation.

After becoming associates, it typically takes actuaries another 2 to 3 years to earn fellowship status.

The SOA offers fellowship certification in five separate tracks: life and annuities, group and health benefits, retirement benefits, investments, and finance/enterprise risk management. Unlike the SOA, the CAS does not offer specialized study tracks for fellowship certification.

Both the CAS and the SOA have continuing education requirements. Most actuaries meet this requirement by attending training seminars that are sponsored by their employers or the societies.

Important Qualities

Analytical skills. Actuaries use analytical skills to identify patterns and trends in complex sets of data to determine the factors that have an effect on certain types of events.

Computer skills. Actuaries must know programming languages and be able to use and develop spreadsheets, databases, and statistical analysis tools.

Interpersonal skills. Actuaries serve as leaders and members of teams, so they must be able to listen to other people’s opinions and suggestions before reaching a conclusion.

Math skills. Actuaries quantify risk by using the principles of calculus, statistics, and probability.

Problem-solving skills. Actuaries identify risks and develop ways for businesses to manage those risks.

Speaking skills. Actuaries must be able to explain complex technical matters to those who lack an actuarial background in a way that helps them understand the subject.

Writing skills. Actuaries must be able to communicate clearly through the reports and memos that describe their work and recommendations.

Training

Most entry-level actuaries start out as trainees. They are typically on teams with more experienced actuaries who serve as mentors. At first they perform basic tasks such as compiling data, but as they gain more experience, they may conduct research and write reports. Beginning actuaries may spend time working in other departments, such as marketing, underwriting, and product development, to learn all aspects of the company’s work and how actuarial work applies to them.

Most employers support their actuaries throughout the certification process. For example, employers typically pay the cost of exams and study materials. Many firms provide paid time to study and encourage their employees to set up study groups. Employees usually receive raises or bonuses for each exam that they pass.

Licenses

Pension actuaries must be enrolled by the U.S. Department of Labor and U.S. Department of the Treasury’s Joint Board for the Enrollment of Actuaries. Applicants must meet certain experience requirements and pass two exams administered through the SOA to qualify for enrollment.

Advancement

Advancement depends largely on job performance and the number of actuarial exams passed. For example, actuaries who achieve fellowship status often supervise the work of other actuaries and provide advice to senior management. Actuaries with a broad knowledge of risk management and how it applies to business can rise to executive positions in their companies, such as chief risk officer or chief financial officer.

Education

A high school diploma or a General Educational Development (GED) diploma is typically required for someone to become an administrative services manager. However, some administrative services managers need at least a bachelor’s degree. Those with a bachelor’s degree typically study business, engineering, or facility management.

Certification

The International Facility Management Association offers a competency-based professional certification program for administrative services managers. Completing this program may give prospective job candidates an advantage. The program has two levels: the Facilities Management Professional (FMP) certification and the Certified Facility Manager (CFM) certification. People entering the profession can get the FMP as a steppingstone to the CFM. For the CFM, applicants must meet certain educational and experience requirements.

Work Experience

Administrative services managers must have related work experience reflecting managerial and leadership abilities. For example, contract administrators need experience in purchasing and sales, as well as knowledge of the variety of supplies, machinery, and equipment that the organization uses. Managers who are concerned with supply, inventory, and distribution should be experienced in receiving, warehousing, packaging, shipping, transportation, and related operations.

Advancement

Advancement of facility managers is based on the practices and size of individual organizations. Some facility managers transfer among departments within an organization or work their way up from technical positions. Others advance through a progression of facility management positions that offer additional responsibilities. Advancement is easier in large organizations that employ several levels and types of administrative services managers.

A master's degree in business administration or a related field can enhance a manager’s opportunities to advance to higher level positions, such as director of administrative services. Some experienced managers may join or establish a management consulting firm to provide administrative management services to other organizations on a contract basis.

Important Qualities

Analytical skills. Administrative services managers must be able to review an organization’s procedures and find ways to improve efficiency.

Communication skills. Much of an administrative services manager’s time is spent working with other people. Therefore, communication is a key quality.

Detail oriented. Administrative services managers must pay attention to details. This quality is necessary across a range of tasks, from ensuring that the organization complies with building codes to managing the process of buying equipment.

Leadership skills. In managing workers and coordinating administrative duties, administrative services managers must be able to motivate employees and deal with issues that may arise.

Education

Most states require adult literacy and GED teachers to have at least a bachelor’s degree in education, but some employers prefer to hire those with a master’s degree.

Master’s degrees in adult education prepare prospective teachers to use effective teaching strategies for adult learners, to work with students from various backgrounds, and to develop adult education programs. Some programs allow these prospective teachers to specialize in adult basic education, secondary education, or English as a second language (ESL).

Some colleges and universities offer master's degrees or graduate certificates in teaching adult education or English for speakers of other languages (ESOL). Programs help prospective teachers learn how to teach adults, work with learners from a variety of cultures, and how to teach adults with learning disabilities.

Programs in English as a second language not only help these prospective teachers understand how adults learn languages but also prepare them to teach communication skills. Prospective ESL teachers should take courses or training in linguistics and theories of how people learn second languages. Knowledge of a second language is not necessary to teach ESL, but it is helpful to understand what students are going through.

Many adult literacy and GED teachers take professional development classes to ensure that they keep up with the latest research in teaching adults and improve their teaching skills.

Licenses and Certification

Many states require adult literacy and GED teachers to have a teaching certificate to work in government-run programs. Some states have certificates specifically for adult education. Other states require teachers to have a certificate in elementary or secondary education. To get a license, adult literacy and GED teachers typically need a bachelor's degree and must have passed an approved teacher-training program.

Important Qualities

Communication skills. Teachers must collaborate with other teachers and program administrators. In addition, they talk to students about their progress and goals.

Cultural sensitivity. Adult literacy and GED teachers must be able to work with students from a variety of cultural, educational, and economic backgrounds. They must be understanding and respectful of their students’ backgrounds and be familiar with their concerns.

Instructional skills. Adult literacy and GED teachers need to be able to explain concepts in terms that students can understand. In addition, they need to be able to alter their teaching methods to meet the needs of each student they teach and find ways to keep students engaged in learning.

Patience. Working with students of different abilities and backgrounds can be difficult. Teachers must be with patient when students struggle with material.

Education

A bachelor’s degree is required for most advertising, promotions, and marketing management positions. For advertising management positions, some employers prefer a bachelor's degree in advertising or journalism. A relevant course of study might include classes in marketing, consumer behavior, market research, sales, communication methods and technology, visual arts, art history, and photography.

Most marketing managers have a bachelor’s degree. Courses in business law, management, economics, accounting, finance, mathematics, and statistics are advantageous. In addition, completing an internship while in school is highly recommended.

Work Experience

Advertising, promotional, and marketing managers typically have work experience in advertising, marketing, promotions, or sales. For example, many managers are former sales representatives; purchasing agents; buyers; or product, advertising, promotions, or public relations specialists.

Important Qualities

Analytical skills. As the advertising industry changes with the rise of digital media, advertising, promotions, and marketing managers must be able to analyze industry trends to determine the most promising strategies for their organization. 

Creativity. Advertising, promotions, and marketing managers must be able to generate new and imaginative ideas.

Decision-making skills. Managers often must choose between competing advertising and marketing strategies put forward by staff.

Interpersonal skills. These managers must deal with a range of people in different roles, both inside and outside the organization.

Management skills. Advertising, promotions, and marketing managers must manage their time and budget efficiently while directing and motivating staff members.

Education

Although a high school diploma is typically enough for an entry-level advertising sales position, some employers prefer applicants with a college degree. Courses in marketing, communications, business, and advertising are helpful. For those who have a proven record of successfully selling other products, educational requirements are not likely to be strict.

Training

Most training takes place on the job and can be either formal or informal. In most cases, an experienced sales manager instructs a newly hired advertising sales agent who lacks sales experience. In this one-on-one environment, supervisors typically coach new hires and observe them as they make sales calls and contact clients. Supervisors then advise the new hires on ways to improve their interaction with clients. Employers may bring in consultants to lead formal training sessions when agents sell to a specialized market segment, such as automotive dealers or real estate professionals.

Advancement

Agents with proven leadership ability and a strong sales record may advance to supervisory and managerial positions, such as sales supervisor, sales manager, or vice president of sales. Successful advertising sales agents also may advance to positions in other industries, such as corporate sales.

Important Qualities

Communication skills. Advertising sales agents must be persuasive during sales calls. In addition, they should listen to the client’s desires and concerns, and recommend an appropriate advertising package.

Initiative. Advertising sales agents must actively seek new clients and keep in touch with current clients to meet sales quotas. 

Organization skills. Agents work with many clients, each of whom may be at a different stage in the sales process. Agents must be well-organized to keep track of their clients or potential clients.

Persistence. Advertising sales agents must continue making sales calls even if rejected at first, because potential clients are often unwilling to commit on a first call.

Self-confidence. Advertising sales agents should be confident when calling potential clients (cold calls) and when following up with potential and existing clients.

Education

High school students interested in becoming an aerospace engineering and operations technician should take classes in math, science, and, if available, drafting. Courses that help students develop skills working with their hands also are valuable, because these technicians build what aerospace engineers design. Employers also want these technicians to have a basic understanding of computers and programs to model or simulate products.

Vocational-technical schools include postsecondary public institutions that emphasize training needed by local employers. Students who complete these programs typically receive a diploma or certificate. Community colleges offer programs similar to those in technical institutes but include more theory-based and liberal arts coursework and programs. Community colleges typically award an associate’s degree.

The Technology Accreditation Commission of ABET (formerly the Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology), accredits programs that include at least college algebra, trigonometry, and basic science courses.

Many vocational and community college programs offer cooperative programs, with work experience built into the curriculum.

Important Qualities

Communication skills. Aerospace engineering and operations technicians receive instructions from aerospace engineers. Consequently, they must be able to understand and follow the instructions, as well as communicate any problems to their supervisors.

Critical-thinking skills. Aerospace engineering and operations technicians must be able to help aerospace engineers figure out why a particular design does not work as planned. They must be able to evaluate system capabilities, identify problems, formulate the right question, and then to find the right answer.

Detail oriented. Aerospace engineering and operations technicians make and keep precise measurements needed by aerospace engineers. Consequently, they must make correct measurements and keep accurate records.

Interpersonal skills. Aerospace engineering and operations technicians must be able to take instruction and offer advice. An ability to work well with supervising engineers, other technicians, and mechanics is critical as technicians increasingly interact with people from other divisions, businesses, and governments.

Math skills. Aerospace engineering and operations technicians use the principals of mathematics for analysis, design, and troubleshooting in their work.

Technical skills. Aerospace engineering and operations technicians must be able to help aerospace engineers by building what the engineers design and helping with the processes and directions required to move from design to production. They must have both the hands-on skills of mechanics and some technical knowledge of aerospace engineering.

Certification

Although certification is not required, skills-based certification programs help students prepare for certification offered by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). Certification may be beneficial because it shows employers that a technician can carry out the theoretical designs of aerospace engineers, and companies and the FAA seek to ensure the highest standards for the safety of the aircraft.

Education

Entry-level aerospace engineers usually need a bachelor's degree. High school students interested in studying aerospace engineering should take courses in chemistry, physics, and mathematics, including algebra, trigonometry, and calculus.

Bachelor’s degree programs are designed to take 4 years and include classroom, laboratory, and field studies in subjects such as general engineering principles, propulsion, stability and control, structures, mechanics, and aerodynamics, which is the study of how air interacts with moving objects.

Some colleges and universities offer cooperative programs, in partnership with industry, that give students practical experience while they complete their education. Cooperative programs and internships allow students to get valuable experience and to finance part of their education.

At some universities, a student can enroll in a 5-year program that leads to both a bachelor’s degree and master’s degree upon completion. A graduate degree will allow an engineer to work as an instructor at a university or to do research and development. Programs in aerospace engineering are accredited by ABET (formerly the Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology).

Important Qualities

Analytical skills. Aerospace engineers must be able to identify design elements that may not be meeting requirements in particular operating environments and then formulate alternatives to improve their performance.

Business skills. Much of the work done by aerospace engineers involves meeting federal government standards. Meeting these standards often requires knowledge of standard business practices, as well as knowledge of commercial law.

Critical-thinking skills. Aerospace engineers must be able to translate a set of issues into requirements and to figure out why a particular design does not work. They must be able to ask the right question and then to find an acceptable answer.

Math skills. Aerospace engineers use the principals of calculus, trigonometry, and other advanced topics in mathematics for analysis, design, and troubleshooting in their work.

Teamwork. Aerospace engineers must work with other professionals involved in designing and building aircraft, spacecraft, and their components. They must be able to communicate well, divide work into manageable tasks, and work with others toward a common goal.

Writing skills. Aerospace engineers work with many other professionals, often other kinds of engineers. They must be able to write papers that explain their designs clearly to these professionals. They must also create documentation for future reference.

Licenses

Aerospace engineers are not required to be licensed at the entry level. More experienced aerospace engineers, who have more responsibility, must be licensed as professional engineers (PE). Licensure generally requires the following:

• A degree from an engineering program accredited by ABET
• A passing score on the Fundamentals of Engineering (FE) exam
• Relevant work experience
• A passing score on the Professional Engineering (PE) exam

The initial Fundamentals of Engineering (FE) exam can be taken right after graduating with a bachelor's degree. Engineers who pass this exam commonly are called engineers in training (EITs) or engineer interns (EIs). After acquiring suitable work experience, EITs can take the second exam, called the Principles and Practice of Engineering exam.

Several states require engineers to take continuing education courses to keep their licenses. Most states recognize licenses from other states, as long as the other states’ licensing requirements meet or exceed their own licensing requirements.

Advancement

Eventually, aerospace engineers may advance to become technical specialists or to supervise a team of engineers and technicians. Some may even become engineering managers or move into executive positions, such as program managers. However, preparation for assuming a managerial position usually requires serving an apprenticeship under a more experienced aerospace engineer. For more information, see the profile on architectural and engineering managers. 

Education and Training

People interested in this occupation should take as many high school science and math classes as possible. A solid background in applied chemistry, physics, and math is vital.

Agricultural and food science technicians typically need an associate’s degree in animal science or a related field from an accredited college or university. While in college, prospective technicians learn through a combination of classroom and hands-on learning, such as an internship.

A background in the biological sciences is important for food and agricultural technicians. Students should take courses in biology, chemistry, animal science, and agricultural engineering as part of their programs. Many schools offer internships, cooperative-education, and other experiential programs designed to enhance employment prospects.

Technicians with a high school diploma usually complete an extensive training program under the supervision of a more-experienced technician. These training programs can last a year or more.

Important Qualities

Analytical skills. Agricultural and food science technicians must conduct a variety of observations and on-site measurements, all of which require precision and accuracy.

Critical-thinking skills. Agricultural and food science technicians reach conclusions through sound reasoning and judgment. They determine how to improve food quality and must test products for a variety of safety standards.

Interpersonal skills. Agricultural and food science technicians need to work well with others. They may supervise agricultural and food science workers and receive instruction from scientists or specialists, so effective communication is critical.

Listening skills. Agricultural and food science technicians must follow instructions given to them by food scientists and agricultural engineers.

Speaking skills. Agricultural and food science technicians must give clear instructions to field and laboratory workers, who typically perform the tasks necessary for food quality testing.

Education

Every state has a land-grant college that offers agricultural science degrees. Many other colleges and universities also offer agricultural science degrees or agricultural science courses. Degrees in related sciences, such as biology, chemistry, or physics, or in a related engineering specialty also may qualify people for many agricultural science jobs.

Undergraduate coursework for food scientists and technologists and for soil and plant scientists typically includes biology, chemistry, botany, and plant conservation. Students preparing to be food scientists take courses such as food chemistry, food analysis, food microbiology, food engineering, and food processing operations. Students preparing to be soil and plant scientists take courses in plant pathology, soil chemistry, entomology (the study of insects), plant physiology, and biochemistry.

Students typically gain a strong foundation in their field, with an emphasis on teamwork, internships, and research opportunities. In addition to science coursework, undergraduates sometimes take humanities courses, which help them develop good communication skills.

Many people with bachelor's degrees in agricultural sciences find work in related jobs rather than becoming an agricultural or food scientist. For example, a bachelor's degree in agricultural science is useful for managerial jobs in farm-related or ranch-related businesses, such as farming, ranching, agricultural inspection, farm credit institutions, or companies that make or sell feed, fertilizer, seed, and farm equipment.

Graduate study further develops an animal scientist’s knowledge, and it typically takes students 6 years to complete their Ph.D. During graduate school, there is additional emphasis on lab work and original research, where prospective animal scientists have the opportunity to do experiments and sometimes supervise undergraduates.

Advanced research topics include genetics, animal reproduction, and biotechnology, among others. Advanced coursework also emphasizes statistical analysis and experiment design, which are important as Ph.D. candidates begin their research.

Some agricultural and food scientists receive a Doctor of Veterinary Medicine before they begin their animal science training. Like candidates for a Ph.D. in animal science, a prospective veterinarian must first have a bachelor’s degree before getting into veterinary school. For more information, see the profile on veterinarians.

Important Qualities

Communication skills. Communication skills are critical for agricultural and food scientists. They must be able to explain their studies: what they were trying to learn, the methods they used, what they found, and what they think the implications are of their findings. They must also be able to communicate well when working with others, including technicians and student assistants.

Critical-thinking skills. Agricultural and food scientists must use their expertise to determine the best way to answer a specific research question.

Data-analysis skills. Agricultural and food scientists, like other researchers, collect data using a variety of methods, including quantitative surveys. They must then apply standard data analysis techniques to understand the data and get the answers to the questions they are studying.

Decision-making skills. Agricultural and food scientists must use their expertise and experience to determine whether their findings will have an impact on the food supply, farms, and other agricultural products.

Observation skills. Agricultural and food scientists conduct experiments that require precise observation of samples and other data. Any mistake could lead to inconclusive or inaccurate results.

Certification

Agricultural and food scientists can get certifications from organizations like the American Registry of Professional Animal Scientists (ARPAS), or the Soil Science Society of America (SSSA). These certifications recognize expertise in agricultural and food science and enhance the status of those who are certified.

According to the organizations, certification of professional expertise is broadly based on education, a comprehensive exam, and previous professional experience. Scientists must take continuing education courses every year to keep their certification, and they must follow the organization's code of ethics. Certification is not required, but the agricultural and food science community recognizes its importance. Some states require soil scientists to be licensed to practice. Licensing requirements vary by state, but generally include holding a bachelor’s degree with a certain number of credit hours in soil science, a certain number of years working under a licensed scientist, and passage of an examination.

Education

Students who are interested in studying agricultural engineering will benefit from taking high school courses in mathematics, such as algebra, trigonometry, and calculus; and science, such as biology, chemistry, and physics.

Entry-level jobs in agricultural engineering require a bachelor’s degree. Bachelor’s degree programs typically are 4-year programs that include classroom, laboratory, and field studies in areas such as science, mathematics, and engineering principles. Most colleges and universities offer cooperative programs that allow students to gain practical experience while completing their education.

ABET (formerly the Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology) accredits programs in agricultural engineering.

Important Qualities

Listening skills. Agricultural engineers must listen to and seek out information from clients, workers, and other professionals working on a project. Furthermore, they must be able to address the concerns of those who will be using the systems and solutions they design.

Math skills. Agricultural engineers use the principals of calculus, trigonometry, and other advanced topics in mathematics for analysis, design, and troubleshooting in their work.

Problem-solving skills. Agricultural engineers work on problems affecting many different aspects of agricultural production, from problems requiring the design of safer equipment for food processing to water erosion and control problems. To solve these problems, agricultural engineers must be able to apply general principles of engineering to new circumstances.

Systems analysis. Because agricultural engineers sometimes design systems that are part of a larger agricultural or environmental system, they must be able to propose solutions that interact well with other workers, machinery and equipment, and the environment.

Teamwork. Agricultural engineers must be able to work with others in designing solutions involving biological, mechanical, or environmental dimensions. They must be able to work with, and accept feedback from, people from a variety of backgrounds such as agronomy, animal sciences, genetics, and horticulture.

Licenses

Agricultural engineers who offer their services directly to the public must have a license. Licensed engineers are called professional engineers (PEs). Licensure generally requires

• A degree from an ABET-accredited engineering program
• A passing score on the Fundamentals of Engineering (FE) exam
• Relevant work experience, typically at least 4 years
• A passing score on the Professional Engineering (PE) exam

The initial Fundamentals of Engineering (FE) exam can be taken after earning a bachelor’s degree. Engineers who pass this exam commonly are called engineers in training (EITs) or engineer interns (EIs). After getting suitable work experience, EITs and EIs can take the second exam, called the Principles and Practice of Engineering.

Several states require continuing education for engineers to keep their license. Most states recognize licensure from other states, if the licensing state’s requirements meet or exceed their own licensure requirements.

Advancement

Beginning engineers usually work under the supervision of experienced engineers. As they gain knowledge and experience, beginning engineers move to more difficult projects with greater independence to develop designs, solve problems, and make decisions.

Eventually, agricultural engineers may advance to supervise a team of engineers and technicians. Some become engineering managers or move into other managerial positions or sales work.

Agricultural engineers who go into sales use their engineering background to discuss a product's technical aspects with potential buyers and help in product planning, installation, and use. For more information, see the profile on sales engineers.

Education and Training

Most agricultural workers do not need a high school diploma. Instead, they usually get up to a year of on-the-job training, depending on their responsibilities. In addition to on-the-job training, some animal breeders have a bachelor’s degree in animal science and genetics.

Work Experience

Animal breeders typically have several years of experience in a related occupation.

Important Qualities

Listening skills. Agricultural workers need to work well with others. Because they take instructions from farmers and other agricultural managers, effective listening is critical.

Manual dexterity. Agricultural workers need excellent hand-eye coordination to harvest crops and operate farm machinery.

Physical stamina. Agricultural workers need to be able to perform laborious tasks repeatedly.

Physical strength. Agricultural workers must be strong enough to lift heavy objects, including tools and crops.

Technical skills. Agricultural workers must be able to competently operate complex farm machinery. They also occasionally do routine maintenance on the machinery.

Advancement

Agricultural workers may advance to crew leader or other supervisory positions. The ability to speak both English and Spanish is helpful for agricultural supervisors.

Some agricultural workers aspire to become farmers, ranchers, and agricultural managers or to own their own farms and ranches. Knowledge of produce may provide an excellent background for becoming a purchasing agent and buyer of farm products. Those who earn a college degree in agricultural science could become agricultural and food scientists. For more information, see the profiles on farmers, ranchers, and agricultural managers and agricultural and food scientists.

Education and Training

Most mechanics and technicians learn their trade at an FAA-Approved Aviation Maintenance Technician School. Coursework normally lasts 18 to 24 months and provides training with the tools and equipment used on the job.

About one-third of these schools award 2- or 4-year degrees in avionics, aviation technology, or aviation maintenance management. Increasingly, employers are looking more favorably on those with a bachelor’s degree.

Aircraft trade schools are placing more emphasis on technologies being used in new airplanes, such as turbine engines, composite materials, and aviation electronics. These technical advances require mechanics to have stronger backgrounds in composite materials and electronics.

Courses in mathematics, physics, chemical engineering, electronics, computer science, and mechanical drawing are helpful because they teach the principles involved in operating an airplane. Mechanics often need this knowledge to figure out what is wrong and how to fix it.

Courses that develop writing, communication, and management skills are important for mechanics who want to move into senior positions.

Certification

The FAA requires that aircraft maintenance be done by certified mechanics or under the supervision of a supervised mechanic. The FAA offers separate certifications for airframe mechanics and engine mechanics, but most airlines prefer to hire mechanics with a combined Airframe and Powerplant (A&P) certificate.

To qualify, mechanics must be at least 18 years of age, be fluent in English, and have 30 months of experience working on airframes and engines. However, completion of a program at an FAA-Approved Aviation Maintenance Technician School can substitute for the experience requirement.

In addition to having experience or formal training, applicants must pass written, oral, and practical exams that demonstrate required skills. Candidates take the written tests on a computer at one of many designated testing facilities around the world. An FAA Designated Mechanic Examiner gives the oral and practical tests. To get the certification, candidates must pass all the tests within two years.

To keep their certification, mechanics must do an inspection or repair every 90 days and attend a refresher course every 24 months. To fulfill this requirement, mechanics take classes from their employer or an airplane manufacturer.

The FAA allows certified airframe mechanics to work on avionics equipment. Although there is no avionic-specific certification, avionic technicians must have the required training and tools. Many avionics technicians gain the necessary experience from military training, from a technical school, or by working for an avionics manufacturer. Avionics technicians who work on communications equipment must have a restricted radio-telephone operator license from the Federal Communications Commission (FCC).

Advancement

As aircraft mechanics gain experience, they may advance to lead mechanic, lead inspector, or shop supervisor. Opportunities are best for those who have an aircraft inspector's authorization. To get an inspector's authorization, a mechanic must have held an A&P certificate for at least 3 years, with 24 months of hands-on experience.

In addition, as a bachelor’s degree has become increasingly important for career advancement, some mechanics continue their education.

Mechanics with broad experience in maintenance and repair might become inspectors with the FAA.

With additional business and management training, some may open their own maintenance facility.

Traditionally, mechanics have advanced from general aviation jobs to airline jobs. Because salaries are similar between general aviation and airline companies, however, mechanics also should consider the work environment as they search for jobs. Although airline jobs come with standby travel perks, these mechanics often have to work outside, whereas mechanics at corporations or repair shops often work in climate-controlled buildings.

Important Qualities

Agility. Mechanics should be able to climb on airplanes, balance, and reach with no fear of heights.

Detail oriented. Mechanics should be able to adjust airplane parts to exact specifications. For example, mechanics often use precision tools to tighten wheel bolts to an exact tension.

Manual dexterity. Mechanics should be able to precisely coordinate the movement of their fingers and hands to grasp, manipulate, or assemble parts.

Technical skills. Mechanics should be able to interpret engine noises, gauges, dials, and other technical instruments to determine whether a plane’s mechanical systems are working properly.

Troubleshooting skills. Mechanics should be able to diagnose complex problems and evaluate options to correct those problems.

Education and Training

Military veterans have always been an important source of experienced pilots because of the extensive training and flight time that the military provides. However, an increasing number of people are becoming pilots by attending flight school or taking lessons from a Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) certified instructor. The FAA certifies hundreds of civilian flight schools, including some colleges and universities that offer pilot training as part of an aviation degree.

In addition, most airline companies require at least 2 years of college and prefer to hire college graduates. In fact, most pilots today have a bachelor’s degree. Because the number of college-educated applicants continues to increase, many employers are making a college degree an entry-level requirement. Preferred courses for airline pilots include English, math, physics, and aeronautical engineering.

Because pilots must be able to make quick decisions and react appropriately under pressure, airline companies will often reject applicants who do not pass psychological and aptitude tests.

Once hired by an airline, new pilots undergo additional company training that usually includes 6-8 weeks of ground school and 25 hours of additional flight time. After they finish this training, airline pilots must keep their certification by attending training once or twice a year.

Licenses

Commercial pilot’s license. All pilots who are paid to transport passengers or cargo must have a commercial pilot's license. To qualify for this license, applicants must be at least 18 years old and have at least 250 hours of flight experience.

Applicants must also pass a strict physical exam to make sure that they are in good health, must have vision that is correctable to 20/20, and must have no physical handicaps that could impair their performance.

In addition, they must pass a written test that includes questions about safety procedures, navigation techniques, and FAA regulations.

Finally, they must demonstrate their flying ability to an FAA-designated examiner.

Instrument rating. To fly during periods of low visibility, pilots must be rated to fly by instruments. They may qualify for this rating by having at least 40 hours of instrument flight experience. Pilots also must pass a written exam and show an examiner their ability to fly by instruments.

Airline certifications. Currently, airline captains must have an airline transport pilot certificate. In 2013, new regulations will require first officers to have this certificate as well. Applicants must be at least 23 years old, have a minimum of 1,500 hours of flight time, and pass written and flight exams. Furthermore, airline pilots usually maintain one or more advanced ratings, depending on the requirements of their particular aircraft.

All licenses are valid as long as a pilot can pass periodic physical, eye, and flight examinations.

Advancement

Many civilian pilots start as flight instructors, building up their flight hours while they earn money teaching. As they become more experienced, these instructors can move into jobs as commercial pilots.

Commercial pilots may begin their careers flying charter planes, helicopters, or crop dusters. These positions typically require less experience than airline jobs require. Some commercial pilots may advance to flying corporate planes.

In nonairline jobs, a first officer may advance to captain and, in large companies, to chief pilot or director of aviation. However, many pilots use their commercial experience as a steppingstone to becoming an airline pilot.

Airline pilots may begin as flight engineers or first officers for regional airline companies. Newly hired pilots at regional airline companies typically have about 2,000 hours of flight experience.

Over time, experience gained at these jobs may lead to higher paying jobs with major airline companies. Newly hired pilots at major airline companies typically have about 4,000 hours of flight experience.

For airline pilots, advancement depends on a system of seniority outlined in union contracts. Typically, after 1 to 5 years, flight engineers may advance to first officer and, after 5 to 15 years, to captain.

Important Qualities

Communication skills. Pilots must speak clearly when conveying information to air traffic controllers. They must also listen carefully for instructions.

Depth perception. Pilots must be able to see clearly and judge the distance between objects.

Detail oriented. Pilots must watch many systems at the same time. Even small changes can have significant effects, so they must constantly pay close attention to many details.

Monitoring skills. Pilots must regularly watch over gauges and dials to make sure that all systems are in working order.

Problem-solving skills. Pilots must be able to identify complex problems and figure out appropriate solutions. When a plane encounters turbulence, for example, pilots assess the weather conditions, select a calmer airspace, and request a route change from air traffic control.

Quick reaction time. Because warning signals can appear with no notice, pilots must be able to respond quickly to any impending danger.

Teamwork. Pilots work closely with air traffic controllers and flight dispatchers. As a result, they need to be able to coordinate actions on the basis of the feedback they receive.

Controllers also must pass a physical exam each year and a job performance exam twice a year. In addition, they must pass periodic drug screenings.

Education and Training

There are two main pathways to becoming an air traffic controller:

Previous controller experience. Candidates with previous experience with the FAA or the U.S. Armed Forces are automatically eligible to apply for air traffic controller positions. They do not need to take the FAA preemployment test.

AT-CTI degree. Those without previous experience must obtain an air traffic management degree through the FAA Air Traffic-Collegiate Training Initiative (AT-CTI). AT-CTI schools offer 2- or 4-year degrees that teach courses in aviation and air traffic management.

Candidates who complete an AT-CTI program of study are automatically eligible to take the FAA preemployment test. Applicants who pass the test can then become eligible to enroll in a 2-month training course at the FAA Academy. The invitation to attend the training course is dependent on the number of available job openings.

After graduating from the Academy, trainees are assigned to an air traffic control facility as developmental controllers until they complete all requirements for becoming a certified air traffic controller.

Advancement

New air traffic controllers, referred to as developmental controllers, begin their careers by supplying pilots with basic flight data and airport information. They then advance to different positions within the control room.

As the developmental controllers master various duties, they earn increases in pay and advance in their training. Generally, it takes new controllers 2 to 4 years to complete the on-the-job training that leads to full certification. Those with previous controller experience may take less time to become fully certified.

Trainees who fail to complete the Academy or their on-the-job training are usually dismissed.

There are limited opportunities for a controller to switch from an en route position to an airport position. However, within these categories, controllers can transfer to jobs at different locations or advance to supervisory positions.

Important Qualities

Communication skills. When pilots contact the control tower for instructions, air traffic controllers must listen carefully to their requests and respond by speaking clearly.

Concentration skills. Controllers must be able to concentrate in a room where multiple conversations occur at once. For example, in a large airport tower, several controllers may be speaking with several pilots at the same time.

Decision-making skills. Controllers must make quick decisions. For example, when a pilot requests a change of altitude, a controller must respond quickly so that the plane can avoid unnecessary turbulence.

Multitasking skills. Controllers must be able to coordinate the actions of multiple flights. For example, a controller may be required to guide several pilots through turbulent weather at the same time. 

Problem-solving skills. Controllers must be able to understand complex situations, such as the impact of changing weather patterns on a plane’s flight path. Controllers must be able to review important information and provide pilots with an appropriate solution.

Education

Most animal care and service worker positions do not require formal education, but many animal care facilities require at least a high school diploma or the equivalent. 

Although pet groomers typically learn by working under the guidance of an experienced groomer, they can also attend one of 50 state-licensed grooming schools. The length of each program varies with the school and the number of advanced skills taught.

Most zoos require keepers to have a bachelor’s degree in biology, animal science, or a related field. 

Animal trainers usually need a high school diploma or the equivalent, although some positions may require a bachelor’s degree. For example, marine mammal trainers usually need a bachelor’s degree in marine biology, animal science, biology, or a related field. 

Dog trainers and horse trainers typically qualify by taking courses at community colleges or vocational and private training schools. 

Training

Most animal care and service workers learn through short-term on-the-job training. They begin by doing basic tasks and work up to positions that require more responsibility and experience. 

Some animal care and service workers may receive training before they enter their position. For example, caretakers in shelters can attend training programs through the Humane Society of the United States and the American Humane Association. Pet groomers often learn their trade by completing an informal apprenticeship, usually lasting 12 to 20 weeks, under the guidance of an experienced groomer.   

Certification

Although not required, certifications available in many of these occupations may help workers establish their credentials and enhance their skills. For example, several professional associations and hundreds of private vocational and state-approved trade schools offer certification for dog trainers. The National Dog Groomers Association of America offers certification for master status as a groomer. Both the National Association of Professional Pet Sitters and Pet Sitters International offer a home-study certification program for pet sitters. Marine mammal trainers should be certified in SCUBA. 

Work Experience

For many caretaker positions, it helps to have experience working with animals. Nearly all animal trainer and zookeeper positions require candidates to have experience with animals. 

Important Qualities

Compassion. All workers must be compassionate when dealing with animals and their owners. They should like animals and must treat them with kindness.

Customer-service skills. Animal care and service workers should understand pet owners’ needs so they can provide services that leave the owners satisfied. Some animal care and service workers may need to deal with distraught pet owners; for example, caretakers working in animal shelters may need to reassure owners looking for a lost pet.

Detail oriented. Workers must be detail oriented because they are often responsible for keeping animals on a strict diet, maintaining records, and monitoring changes in animals’ behavior. 

Patience. Many animal caretakers and all animal trainers need to be patient when teaching or dealing with animals that do not respond to commands.

Problem-solving skills. Animal trainers must have problem-solving skills when teaching an animal obedience and other behaviors. They must assess whether the animals are responding to the trainer’s teaching methods and identify which methods are most successful.

Stamina. Stamina is important for animal care and service workers because their work often involves kneeling, crawling, bending, and, occasionally, lifting heavy supplies, such as bags of food.